Attached to each legion were usually an equal number of auxilia, noncitizen troops often supplied by allies. These were lightly armed troops, skirmishers, archers, slingers, and other missile troops, and cavalry. The legion had a small citizen cavalry force but depended upon the auxilia for the bulk of the cavalry. Through long service an auxiliary could earn citizen status, which was hereditary and his sons could serve in the legions. Auxilia received lower pay and had lower status, but they were essential when operating in broken terrain or heavy forest, where the legions could not be used to advantage. In battle they often held the flanks and usually, with the cavalry, were charged with pursuing a broken and fleeing enemy, preventing them from reforming or counterattacking.
There were other formations within a legion, some of them obscure. One was the antesignani, “those who fight before the standards.” Already nearly obsolete, they were apparently an elite strike force, though how it was manned and used is uncertain. Apparently exceptional bravery was required for assignment to the antesignani.
There were awards for valor. Greatest of these were the crowns. The Civic Crown (corona civica) was awarded for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The Wall Crown (corona muralis) was awarded to the first man atop an enemy wall or battlement. The Grass Crown (corona graminea) was awarded by the centurions to a general who had won a great victory. It was braided from grass growing on the battlefield. There was great competition among officers for the crowns, because they made election to higher office a near certainty. The citizens loved them. For the rankers there were bracelets awarded for valor. Among Roman men only soldiers wore bracelets, and these only as decorations for bravery. Torques, twisted Gallic neck rings in miniature form, were also awarded in pairs, slung over the neck on a scarf. Centurions might be awarded phalerae: seven or nine massive silver discs worn on a harness atop the armor. Apparently these were for exceptional service rather than a single feat.
In Decius’s time the legions were still formed as a unit, served for a number of years, then discharged collectively. Even when on many years’ service, they were ceremonially disbanded, then reformed every year, with the soldier’s oath renewed each time. This archaic practice was extremely troublesome, and when a few years later Augustus reformed the military system, legions became permanent institutions, their strength kept up by continuous enlistment of new soldiers as old ones retired or died. Many of the Augustan legions remained in service continuously for centuries.
The commander of a legion might be a consul or praetor, but more often he was a proconsul or propraetor who, having served his year in Rome, went out to govern a province. Within his province he was commander of its legions. He might appoint a legate (legatus) as his assistant. The legate was subject to approval by the Senate. He might choose a more experienced military man to handle the army work while the promagistrate concentrated upon civil affairs, but a successful war was important to a political career, while enriching the commander. For an extraordinary command, such as Caesar’s in Gaul, or Pompey’s against the pirates, the promagistrate might be permitted a number of legates.
Under the commander were Tribunes of the Soldiers, usually young men embarking upon their political careers. Their duties were entirely at the discretion of the commander. Caesar usually told his tribunes to sit back, keep their mouths shut, and watch the experienced men work. But a military tribune might be given a responsible position, even command of a legion. The young Cassius Longinus as tribune prosecuted a successful war in Syria after his commander was dead.
munera Special games, not part of the official calendar, at which gladiators were exhibited. They were originally funeral games and were always dedicated to the dead.
offices The political system of the Roman Republic was completely different from any today. The terms we have borrowed from the Romans have very different meanings in the modern context. “Senators” were not elected and did not represent a particular district. “Dictator” was a temporary office conferred by the Senate in times of emergency. “Republic” simply meant a governmental system that was not a hereditary monarchy. By the time of the SPQR series the power of former Roman kings was shared among a number of citizen assemblies.
Tribunes of the People were representatives of the plebeians with power to introduce laws and to veto actions of the Senate. Only plebeians could hold the office, which carried no imperium. Tribunes of the Soldiers were elected from among the young men of senatorial or equestrian rank to be assistants to generals. Usually it was the first step of a man’s political career.
A Roman embarked upon a public career followed the “cursus honorum,” i.e., the “path of honor.” After doing staff work for officials, he began climbing the ladder of office. These were taken in order as follows:
The lowest elective office was quaestor: bookkeeper and paymaster for the Treasury, the Grain Office, and the provincial governors. These men did the scut work of the Empire. After the quaestorship he was eligible for the Senate, a nonelective office, which had to be ratified by the censors; if none were in office, he had to be ratified by the next censors to be elected.
Next were the aediles. Roughly speaking, these were city managers, responsible for the upkeep of public buildings, streets, sewers, markets, brothels, etc. There were two types: the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles. The curule aediles could sit in judgment on civil cases involving markets and currency, while the plebeian aediles could only levy fines. Otherwise their duties were the same. The state only provided a tiny stipend for improvements, and the rest was the aediles’ problem. If he put on (and paid for) splendid games, he was sure of election to higher office.
Third was praetor, an office with real power. Praetors were judges, but they could command armies, and after a year in office they could go out to govern provinces, where real wealth could be won, earned, or stolen. In the late Republic, there were eight praetors. Senior was the praetor urbanus, who heard civil cases between citizens of Rome. The praetor peregrinus (praetor of the foreigners) heard cases involving foreigners. The others presided over criminal courts. After leaving office, the ex-praetors became propraetors and went on to govern propraetorian provinces with full imperium.
The highest office was consul, supreme office of power during the Roman Republic. Two were elected each year. Consuls called meetings of the Senate and presided there. The office carried full imperium and they could lead armies. On the expiration of the year in office, the ex-consuls were usually assigned the best provinces to rule as proconsul. As proconsul, he had the same insignia and the same number of lictors. His power was absolute within his province. The most important commands always went to proconsuls.
Censors were elected every five years. It was the capstone to a political career, but it did not carry imperium and there was no foreign command afterward. Censors conducted the census, purged the Senate of unworthy members, doled out the public contracts, confirmed new senators in office, and conducted the lustrum, a ritual of purification. They could forbid certain religious practices or luxuries deemed bad for public morals or generally “un-Roman.” There were two censors, and each could overrule the other. They were usually elected from among the ex-consuls.
Under the Sullan Constitution, the quaestorship was the minimum requirement for membership in the Senate. The majority of senators had held that office and never held another. Membership in the Senate was for life, unless expelled by the censors.
No Roman official could be prosecuted while in office, but he could be after he stepped down. Malfeasance in office was one of the most common court charges.
The most extraordinary office was dictator. In times of emergency, the Senate could instruct the consuls to appoint a dictator, who could wield absolute power for six months, after which he had to step down from office. Unlike all other officials, a dictator was unaccountable: He could not be prosecuted for his acts in office. The last true dictator was appointed in the third century B.C. The dictatorships of Sulla and Jul
ius Caesar were unconstitutional.
optimates Supporters of a continued senatorial dominance, optimates were an aristocratic party in Republican Rome.
orders The Roman hierarchy was divided into a number of orders (ordines). At the top was the Senatorial Order (Ordo Senatus) made up of the senators. Originally the Senate had been a part of the Equestrian Order, but the dictator Sulla made them a separate order.
Next came the Equestrian Order (Ordo Equestris). This was a property qualification. Men above a certain property rating, determined every five years by the censors, belonged to the Equestrian Order, so named because in ancient times, at the annual hosting, these wealthier men brought horses and served in the cavalry. By the time of the SPQR novels they had lost all military nature. The equestrians (equites) were the wealthiest class, the bankers and businessmen, and after the Sullan reforms they supplied the jurymen. If an eques won election to the quaestorship he entered the Senatorial Order. Collectively, they wielded immense power. They often financed the political careers of senators and their business dealings abroad often shaped Roman foreign policy.
Last came the Plebeian Order (Ordo Plebis). Pretty much everybody else, and not really an order in the sense of the other two, since plebeians might be equestrians or senators. Nevertheless, as the mass of the citizenry they were regarded as virtually a separate power and they elected the Tribunes of the People, who were in many ways the most powerful politicians of this time.
Slaves and foreigners had no status and did not belong to an order.
palla A cloak, a cover.
patrician The noble class of Rome.
pietas The quality of dutifulness toward the gods and, especially, toward one’s parents.
priesthoods In Rome, the priesthoods were offices of state. There were two major classes: pontifexes and flamines.
Pontifexes were members of the highest priestly college of Rome. They had superintendence over all sacred observances, state and private, and over the calendar. The head of their college was the Pontifex Maximus, a title held to this day by the pope.
The flamines were the high priests of the state gods: the Flamen Martialis for Mars, the Flamen Quirinalis for the deified Romulus, and, highest of all, the Flamen Dialis, high priest of Jupiter.
The Flamen Dialis celebrated the Ides of each month and could not take part in politics, although he could attend meetings of the Senate, attended by a single lictor. Each had charge of the daily sacrifices, wore distinctive headgear, and was surrounded by many ritual taboos.
Another very ancient priesthood was the Rex Sacrorum, “King of Sacrifices.” This priest had to be a patrician and had to observe even more taboos than the Flamen Dialis. This position was so onerous that it became difficult to find a patrician willing to take it.
Technically, pontifexes and flamines did not take part in public business except to solemnize oaths and treaties, give the god’s stamp of approval to declarations of war, etc. But since they were all senators anyway, the ban had little meaning. Julius Caesar was Pontifex Maximus while he was out conquering Gaul, even though the Pontifex Maximus wasn’t supposed to look upon human blood.
Princeps (First Citizen) This was an especially distinguished senator chosen by the censors. His name was first called on the roll of the Senate, and he was first to speak on any issue. Later the title was usurped by Augustus and is the origin of the word “prince.”
sistrum Percussion instrument consisting of a handheld frame to which small metal disks are attached, rather like those on a tambourine.
SPQR Senatus Populusque Romanus The Senate and People of Rome. The formula embodied the sovereignty of Rome. It was used on official correspondence, documents, and public works.
stola A long woman’s dress, generally fastened with pins at the shoulders and worn belted at the waist.
Toga The outer robe of the Roman citizen. It was white for the upper class, darker for the poor and for people in mourning. The toga candidus was a specially whitened (with chalk) toga worn when standing for office. The toga praetexta bordered with a purple stripe, was worn by curule magistrates, by state priests when performing their functions, and by boys prior to manhood. The toga trabea, a striped robe, was worn by augurs and some orders of the priesthood. The toga picta, purple and embroidered with golden stars, was worn by a general when celebrating a triumph, also by a magistrate when giving public games.
Triclinium A dining room.
Triumph A ceremony in which a victorious general was rendered semidivine honors for a day. It began with a magnificent procession displaying the loot and captives of the campaign and culminated with a banquet for the Senate in the Temple of Jupiter, special protector of Rome.
Vestal Virgins Virgin priestesses, chaste like the goddess Vesta, six of them served for thirty years, any violation of the vow of chastity was punished by burial alive. Vesta’s shrine was the most sacred object of Roman religion.
Also by JOHN MADDOX ROBERTS
SPQR X: A Point of Law
SPQR IX: The Princess and the Pirates
SPQR VIII: The River God’s Vengeance
SPQR VII: The Tribune’s Curse
SPQR VI: Nobody Loves a Centurion
SPQR V: Saturnalia
SPQR IV: The Temple of the Muses
SPQR III: The Sacrilege
SPQR II: The Catiline Conspiracy
SPQR I: The King’s Gambit
The Gabe Treloar Series
The Ghosts of Saigon
Desperate Highways
A Typical American Town
This is a work of fiction. All of the characters, organizations, and events portrayed in this novel are either products of the author’s imagination or are used fictitiously.
THOMAS DUNNE BOOKS.
An imprint of St. Martin’s Press.
SPQR XI: UNDER VESUVIUS. Copyright © 2007 by John Maddox Roberts. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews. For information, address St. Martin’s Press, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010.
www.thomasdunnebooks.com
www.minotaurbooks.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Roberts, John Maddox.
SPQR XI: under Vesuvius / John Maddox Roberts.—1st ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-312-37088-6
ISBN-10: 0-312-37088-1
1. Metellus, Decius Caecilius (Fictitious character)—Fiction. 2. Rome—History—Republic, 265–30 B.C.—Fiction. 3. Private investigators—Rome—Fiction. 4. Murder—Investigation—Rome—Fiction. I. Title. II. Title: SPQR Eleven. III. Title: SPQR 11. IV. Title: Under Vesuvius.
PS3568.O23874 S679 2007
813'.54—dc22
2007035399
First Edition: December 2007
eISBN 9781466856301
First eBook edition: September 2013
Under Vesuvius Page 22
