NOTES
PREFACE
1GHQ, p. 93. (back to text)
2St Albans, p. 96. (back to text)
CHAPTER ONE: JUST RIGHTS AND INHERITANCES
1Monstrelet, iii, pp. 78-80; St-Denys, v, pp. 526-8. (back to text)
2Anna Comnena, The Alexiad, ed. and trans. by E. R. A. Sewter (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1979), p. 416. (back to text)
3For map of Aquitaine (English Gascony), see above p. 3. (back to text)
4M. G. A. Vale, English Gascony 1399-1453 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1970), pp. 2-3. (back to text)
5John Palmer, “The War Aims of the Protagonists and the Negotiations for Peace,” in Fowler, p. 51. (back to text)
6Maurice Keen, The Pelican History of Medieval Europe (Pelican Books, Harmondsworth, 1969 repr. 1976), pp. 202, 122, 217; Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror (Ballantine Books, New York, 1979), pp. 42-4. The persecution was unique to France, though the Templar order was suppressed throughout Europe and its assets transferred to the Knights Hospitallers. (back to text)
7Peter S. Lewis, Later Medieval France: The Polity (Macmillan, London and St Martin’s Press, New York, 1968), pp. 39-41; Kenneth Fowler, “War and Change in Late Medieval France and England,” in Fowler, p. 1. As late as 1522 Charles, duke of Bourbon, could declare himself to be seriously considering the English title to the French throne; the English did not finally renounce the title until the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. (back to text)
8Anne Curry, The Hundred Years War (Palgrave, London and New York, 1993), pp. 66-7; Maurice Keen, “Diplomacy,” HVPK, pp. 182-4. (back to text)
9Since he was a minor at the time, the act could be repudiated as invalid. (back to text)
10Palmer, “The War Aims of the Protagonists and the Negotiations for Peace,” pp. 54-5. (back to text)
11Vale, English Gascony, pp. 5, 27-8; ELMA, p. 289; Curry, The Hundred Years War, pp. 83-8. (back to text)
12G. L. Harriss, Cardinal Beaufort: A Study of Lancastrian Ascendancy and Decline (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988), pp. 23-5; Curry, The Hundred Years War, pp. 90-1. (back to text)
13McLeod, pp. 30-1, 56. (back to text)
14Vale, English Gascony, pp. 48-9, 53; ELMA, p. 320. (back to text)
15For a discussion of Charles VI’s madness, which began in 1392, see Bernard Guenée, La Folie de Charles VI Roi Bien-Amé (Perrin, Paris, 2004). (back to text)
16Lewis, Later Medieval France, p. 114. (back to text)
17Vaughan, pp. 44-7, 67-81; McLeod, pp. 33, 38-40. (back to text)
18Vaughan, pp. 81-2; McLeod, pp. 58-66. (back to text)
19K. B. McFarlane, Lancastrian Kings and Lollard Knights (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1972), pp. 103-4. (back to text)
20ELMA, p. 321; Vaughan, pp. 92-4. (back to text)
21Ibid., pp. 94-5; Vale, English Gascony, pp. 58-62. (back to text)
22Capgrave, p. 124 n. 2. (back to text)
23Monstrelet, i, pp. 451-2. (back to text)
24St Albans, pp. 65-7. (back to text)
25ELMA, pp. 322-3; Christopher Allmand, Henry V (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, new edn, 1997), pp. 56-8; Vale, English Gascony, p. 67. An audit of the Calais accounts cleared Henry of any misdoing. (back to text)
26Cornewaille’s name is usually transcribed as “Cornewall” in modern texts (including ODNB) but I prefer the archaic spelling which is consistently used in medieval sources. (back to text)
27Vale, English Gascony, pp. 62-8; ELMA, pp. 321-2; McLeod, pp. 82-6, 275. (back to text)
CHAPTER TWO: A KING’S APPRENTICESHIP
1ELMA, pp. 322-3; W&W, iii, p. 427; Vale, English Gascony, p. 67. (back to text)
2Thomas Hoccleve, The Regiment of Princes, ed. by Charles R. Blythe (Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, 1999), pp. 97ff. (back to text)
3Christine de Pizan, Le Livre du Corps de Policie, summarised in Edith P. Yenal, Christine de Pizan: A Bibliography (Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N.J. and London, 1989), pp. 65-6. (back to text)
4Kate Langdon Forhan, The Political Theory of Christine de Pizan (Ashgate, Aldershot, 2002), pp. 13, 30, 74. Christine had placed her son in the household of John Montagu, earl of Salisbury, a Francophile poet, patron of poets and favourite of Richard II; Salisbury was killed in revolt against Henry IV in January 1400 and Henry then took the boy into his own household. (back to text)
5Hilary M. Carey, Courting Disaster: Astrology at the English Court and University in the Late Middle Ages (Macmillan, London, 1992), p. 129. (back to text)
6McFarlane, Lancastrian Kings and Lollard Knights, pp. 233-8, 117. (back to text)
7First English Life, p. 17; Nicholas Orme, Medieval Children (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2001), p. 190; Nicolas, p. 389; John Southworth, The English Medieval Minstrel (Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1989), pp. 113-14; Richard Marks and Paul Williamson (eds), Gothic Art for England 1400-1547 (V&A Publications, London, 2003), pp. 121 (illus.), 157. (back to text)
8Orme, Medieval Children, p. 182. (back to text)
9John Cummins, The Hound and the Hawk: The Art of Medieval Hunting (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1988), p. 4. (back to text)
10Ibid., p. 53. (back to text)
11Juliet Barker, The Tournament in England 1100-1400 (Boydell Press, Woodbridge, repr. 2003), pp. 33-40, 132-3; St-Denys, i, pp. 672-82. (back to text)
12Barker, The Tournament in England, ch. 7 passim; Philippe de Commynes, Memoirs: The Reign of Louis XI 1461-83, ed. and trans. by Michael Jones (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1972), p. 71. (back to text)
13Geoffroi de Charny, The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi de Charny: Text, Context, and Translation, ed. by Richard W. Kaeuper and Elspeth Kennedy (University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1996), p. 89. (back to text)
14James Hamilton Wylie, History of England under Henry IV (London, 1884-98), i, pp. 42-3; Maurice Keen, Chivalry (Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 1984), pp. 7, 65, 78; Charny, The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi de Charny, pp. 167-71. By the fifteenth century, knights created at this type of ceremony were known as Knights of the Bath. According to one contemporary French source, Richard II had already knighted Henry on campaign in Ireland earlier in the year (see Desmond Seward, Henry V as Warlord [Sidgwick and Jackson, London, 1987], pp. 9, 11) but knighthood could not be conferred twice. (back to text)
15Allmand, Henry V, pp. 16-17. (back to text)
16Ibid., p. 27; ELMA, pp. 306, 313; for Orléans’ campaign, see above pp. 17, 18-9. (back to text)
17Nigel Saul, The Batsford Companion to Medieval England (Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, NJ, 1982), pp. 264-7; R. A. Griffiths, “Patronage, Politics, and the Principality of Wales, 1413-1461,” in British Government and Administration: Studies Presented to S. B. Chrimes, ed. by H. Hearder and H. R. Loyn (University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 1974), pp. 74-5. (back to text)
18ELMA, p. 309; Allmand, Henry V, p. 21. (back to text)
19John de Trokelowe, “Annales Ricardi Secundi et Henrici Quarti,” Johannis de Trokelowe & Henrici de Blaneford . . . Chronica et Annales, ed. by Henry Thomas Riley (Rolls Series, London, 1866), pp. 367-71; Ken and Denise Guest, British Battles: The Front Lines of History in Colour Photographs (HarperCollins, London, 1997), pp. 47-9. (back to text)
20C. H. Talbot and E. A. Hammond, The Medical Practitioners in Medieval England: A Biographical Register (Wellcome Historical Medical Library, London, 1965), pp. 123-4; Strickland and Hardy, pp. 284-5. Thomas Morstede, the royal servant at Agincourt (see below, pp. 138-40), must have witnessed the operation or read Bradmore’s account of it. For his version of it see R. Theodore Beck, The Cutting Edge: Early History of the Surgeons of London (Lund Humphries, London and Bradford, 1974), pp. 75-6, 117, 13. (back to text)
21See plate 1. I owe this observation to Dr Ingrid Roscoe. (back to text)
22Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 2nd series, ed. with notes and illustrations by Henry Ellis (Harding and Le
pard, London, 1827), i, pp. 11-13, 39-40. (back to text)
23ODNB; McFarlane, Lancastrian Kings and Lollard Knights, pp. 68, 108, 125; The Beauchamp Pageant, ed. and introduced by Alexandra Sinclair (Richard III and Yorkist History Trust in association with Paul Watkins, Donington, 2003), pp. 25-30. (back to text)
24Griffiths, “Patronage, Politics, and the Principality of Wales 1413-1461,” pp. 76-8; Ralph Griffiths, “‘Ffor the Myght off the Lande . . .’: the English Crown, Provinces and Dominions in the Fifteenth Century,” in Anne Curry and Elizabeth Matthew (eds), Concepts and Patterns of Service in the Later Middle Ages (Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 2000), p. 93 and n. 48. (back to text)
25ELMA, pp. 308, 315-16; Margaret Wade Labarge, Henry V: The Cautious Conqueror (Secker and Warburg, London, 1975), pp. 19, 23, 25. (back to text)
26G. L. Harriss, “Financial Policy,” HVPK, pp. 168-9, 169 n. 10. (back to text)
27ELMA, pp. 316-18, 338-40; G. L. Harriss, “The Management of Parliament,” HVPK, p. 139. (back to text)
28ELMA, pp. 124, 130. (back to text)
29Harriss, “The Management of Parliament,” pp. 140-1. (back to text)
30ODNB. Chaucer was the son of Catherine Swynford’s sister, Philippa Roet. (back to text)
31Harriss, Cardinal Beaufort, pp. 1-2, 4, 7-8, 16, 18, 24-5, 29-31, 33, 45, 47-8, 58, 68-9. A cardinal a latere was appointed temporarily and with a specific brief, at the end of which his title and powers lapsed. (back to text)
32Harriss, “The Management of Parliament,” p. 143. (back to text)
CHAPTER THREE: A MOST CHRISTIAN KING
1Usk, p. 243. For differing interpretations of the omen, see Capgrave, p. 125; St Albans, p. 69. (back to text)
2Trokelowe, “Annales Ricardi Secundi et Henrici Quarti,” pp. 297-300. The myth of Becket’s holy oil was created in imitation of the Valois dynasty’s claim that French kings were anointed with the heaven-sent oil of Clovis at their coronations: John W. McKenna, “How God Became an Englishman,” Tudor Rule and Revolution: Essays for G. R. Elton from his American Friends, ed. by Delloyd J. Guth and John W. McKenna (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1982), p. 28. (back to text)
3Powell, pp. 129-30; Harriss, “The Management of Parliament,” pp. 139-40. (back to text)
4Powell, p. 57; Monstrelet, iii, p. 94; GHQ, pp. 52-3; le Févre, i, pp. 228-9. See also below, pp. 195-7. (back to text)
5St-Denys, vi, p. 380. (back to text)
6See, for example, A. J. P. Taylor, A Personal History (Hamish Hamilton, London, 1983), p. 180; Vaughan, p. 205 and Seward, Henry V, passim. (back to text)
7W&W, i, p. 200 and n. 8. (back to text)
8Powell, p. 130. (back to text)
9W&W, i, p. 3; ODNB. The four other sons of rebels knighted at the coronation were the earl of March’s brother, Roger Mortimer; Richard, lord le Despenser; John Holland, the future earl of Huntingdon; and his brother. (back to text)
10W&W, ii, p. 21; ODNB; ELMA, p. 353. (back to text)
11W&W, i, pp. 1, 13-14; The Beauchamp Pageant, pp. 30-1. (back to text)
12Register of Henry Chichele, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1414-1443, ed. by E. F. Jacob (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1943) i, pp. xvi-clxx; Peter Heath, Church and Realm 1272-1461 (Fontana, London, 1988), pp. 291-2, 294-5. (back to text)
13W&W, i, pp. 119-20. (back to text)
14Ibid., i, pp. 119-20, 324-5. (back to text)
15D’A. J. D. Boulton, The Knights of the Crown: The Monarchical Orders of Knighthood in Later Medieval Europe 1325-1520 (Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1987), p. 15. For brotherhood-in-arms, see below, pp. 153-4, 177. (back to text)
16W&W, i, pp. 507-8. The manner of Clarence’s death in 1421 mournfully demonstrated that he could not be trusted to act in the best interests of either the king or the kingdom. In his anxiety to outdo his brother’s success at Agincourt, he over-ruled wiser and more experienced soldiers to attack a much larger French army without waiting for his archers to arrive. The resulting battle of Baugé was the greatest military disaster of Henry’s reign: Clarence himself, Lord Roos, Lord Grey of Heton and Gilbert Umfraville were killed and the earls of Huntingdon and Somerset, the latter’s brother, Edmund Beaufort, and Lord Fitzwalter were all captured: ibid., iii, pp. 301-6. (back to text)
17Ibid., pp. 134-5 and n. 88; CPR, p. 331. (back to text)
18Powell, pp. 197-9. (back to text)
19Ibid., pp. 199-200; W&W, i, pp. 109-10. (back to text)
20It should be noted that legal actions were often concocted as a means of pressurising an opponent, for instance in a land dispute, to settle quickly. For the following discussion on law and order I have relied entirely on the magisterial study by Edward Powell, Kingship, Law, and Society: Criminal Justice in the Reign of Henry V (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989) and his article which preceded it, “The Restoration of Law and Order,” in HVPK, pp. 53-74. (back to text)
21The figures also include Staffordshire, where there were similar problems and the same solution: Powell, “The Restoration of Law and Order,” p. 65. (back to text)
22The six who served on the Agincourt campaign were John Burley, Richard Lacon, John Winsbury, Ralph Brereton, Robert and Roger Corbet. John Wele, constable of Oswestry, stayed behind to defend the Shropshire march: ibid., p. 72. (back to text)
23Brut, ii, pp. 595-6. On one occasion he summoned two brothers, William and John Mynors of Staffordshire, to appear before him to account for their crimes, then personally ordered his justices to pardon them: William later served on the Agincourt campaign and in the conquest of Normandy: Powell, p. 66. (back to text)
24Quoted in Powell, p. 275. (back to text)
25ODNB. (back to text)
26Heresy Trials in the Diocese of Norwich, 1428-31, ed. by Norman P. Tanner (Camden Fourth Series, vol. 20, London, 1977), pp. 10-22, 142. (back to text)
27Anne Hudson, The Premature Reformation: Wycliffite Texts and Lollard History (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1988), pp. 110-11, 115. (back to text)
28St Albans, p. 71; Saul, Batsford Companion to Medieval England, pp. 273-5; Heath, Church and Realm 1272-1461, pp. 258-9; Hudson, The Premature Reformation, pp. 114-15, 339-40. Oldcastle may have hoped to initiate a similar scheme in England, introducing a bill in 1410 to confiscate the lands of the richest bishops and abbots in order to provide the king with an extra twenty thousand pounds of annual income for the defence of the realm. It failed because Henry V, who, as prince of Wales, was then head of the royal council, leapt to the Church’s defence and strongly condemned the whole idea. (back to text)
29Ibid., pp. 116-17; Powell, pp. 146-8; GHQ, pp. 4-5. (back to text)
30For what follows on Oldcastle’s revolt, see W&W, i, pp. 258-80; ELMA, pp. 244-6; Heath, Church and Realm 1272-1461, pp. 274-9; Powell, pp. 149-66. (back to text)
31Ibid., p. 150; W&W, i, p. 264 nn. 10, 11. John de Burgh, a carpenter, and Thomas Kentford were granted annuities of 10 marks each for detecting and revealing certain Lollards and their treasonable plots; Thomas Burton, “a royal spy,” was rewarded for similar information at about the same time. (back to text)
32Oldcastle’s pardon was revoked in March 1415 in the build-up to the Agincourt campaign. He was eventually caught near Welshpool, condemned by his peers in Parliament and suffered the dual penalty of hanging as a traitor and burning as a heretic on 14 December 1417: Powell, p. 164. (back to text)
33ELMA, pp. 245-6; Powell, pp. 161-2, 165-6. (back to text)
34Ibid., p. 166. (back to text)
35The Valois kings of France were traditionally styled “très-Chrétien,” most Christian, to distinguish them from other kings, including those of England, whom they deemed less favoured by God: McKenna, “How God Became an Englishman,” p. 26. (back to text)
CHAPTER FOUR: THE DIPLOMATIC EFFORT
1Bourgeois, pp. 29-31; W&W, i, pp. 170-1. (back to text)
2Bourgeois, pp. 32-3. (back to text)
3Vaughan, p. 100. (back to text)
4Bourgeois, p. 44; Vaughan, p. 101. (back to text)
5McLeod, p. 94; Bourgeois, p. 46. (back to text)
6Ibid., pp. 47-50. (back to text)
7According to French legend, the oriflamme had miraculously appeared to the emperor of Constantinople in a dream as a flaming lance in the hand of Charlemagne, hence its sacred quality. Having been lost several times on the field of battle, it appears that it also had a miraculous habit of reincarnating itself. (back to text)
8Vaughan, pp. 194-6, 197, 247-8; Bourgeois, p. 48; W&W, i, pp. 412-13 and n. 3. (back to text)
9Oliver van Dixmude, quoted in Vaughan, pp. 146-7. (back to text)
10Bourgeois, p. 53. See below, p. 269. (back to text)
11W&W, i, p. 397. (back to text)
12Vaughan, pp. 198-204. (back to text)
13Catherine’s mother was Constanza of Castile, John of Gaunt’s second wife. (back to text)
14W&W, i, pp. 84-5, 90-7, 93 n. 3; Christopher Allmand (ed.), Society at War (Boydell Press, Woodbridge, new edn, 1998), pp. 129-30; Anthony Goodman, “England and Iberia in the Middle Ages,” in England and her Neighbours 1066-1453: Essays in Honour of Pierre Chaplais, ed. by M. Jones and M. G. A. Vale (Hambledon Press, London, 1989), pp. 86-8. (back to text)
15Michael Jones, “The Material Rewards of Service in Late Medieval Brittany: Ducal Servants and Their Residences,” in Curry and Matthew (eds), Concepts and Patterns of Service in the Later Middle Ages, pp. 120-3; A. R. Bridbury, England and the Salt Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1955), p. 80. (back to text)
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