realisable value would typically comprise the current quoted price less the estimated
selling costs. These selling costs can fluctuate significantly depending on the current
demand for processing on the particular blockchain. Where net realisable value is below
cost, the inventory should be written down to its net realisable value with the write
down being recorded in profit or loss. [IAS 2.34]. A previous write-down of inventory is
reversed when circumstances have improved, but the reversal is limited to the amount
previously written down so that the carrying amount never exceeds the original cost.
[IAS 2.33].
3.4.2
Crypto-assets: Fair value less costs to sell
As noted at 3.4 above, commodity broker-traders may measure their commodity
inventories at fair value less costs to sell. [IAS 2.3(b)]. Broker-traders buy or sell
commodities for others or on their own account. When these commodities are
principally acquired for the purpose of selling in the near future and generating a profit
from fluctuations in price or broker-traders’ margin, they can be classified as commodity
inventory at fair value less costs to sell.
While there is no definition of a commodity under IFRS, crypto-assets that are fungible
and immediately marketable at quoted prices could potentially be considered commodities
if they were held by broker-traders. However, judgement should be exercised in
determining whether a particular crypto-asset can be regarded as a commodity.
The quoted prices of crypto-assets may vary considerably between exchanges. A
broker-trader measuring crypto-assets at fair value less costs to sell will need to
determine the principal (or most advantageous) market for those assets, and whether
they could enter into a transaction for the crypto-asset at the price in that market at the
measurement date. The determination of the principal (or most advantageous) market
is discussed in Chapter 14 at 6.
When a broker-trader measures its inventory at fair value less costs to sell, any changes
in the recognised amount should be included in profit or loss for the period. [IAS 2.3(b)].
A broker-trader holder of a crypto-asset will need to estimate the costs to sell the
crypto-asset at each reporting date, taking into consideration the transaction cost on the
relevant blockchain and other fees required in order to convert the crypto-asset into
Inventories
1595
cash. These fees could fluctuate significantly from period to period depending on the
current demand for processing on the relevant blockchain.
4
REAL ESTATE INVENTORY
4.1
Classification of real estate as inventory
Many real estate businesses develop and construct residential properties for sale, and
these developments often consist of several units. The strategy is to make a profit from
the development and construction of the property rather than to make a profit in the
long term from general price increases in the property market. The intention is to sell
the property units as soon as possible following their construction and the sale is
therefore in the ordinary course of the entity’s business. When construction is complete
it is not uncommon for individual property units to be leased at market rates to earn
revenues to partly cover expenses such as interest, management fees, and real estate
taxes. Large-scale buyers of commercial property, such as insurance companies, are
often reluctant to buy unless a property has been let, as this assures immediate cash
flows from the investment.
It is our view that if it is in the entity’s ordinary course of business (supported by its
strategy) to hold property for short-term sale rather than for long-term capital
appreciation or rental income, the entire property (including the leased units) should be
accounted for and presented as inventory. This will continue to be the case as long as it
remains the intention to sell the property in the short term. Rent received should be
included in other income as it does not represent a reduction in the cost of inventory.
Investment property is defined in IAS 40 as ‘property ... held ... to earn rentals or for
capital appreciation or both, rather than for ... use in the production or supply of goods
or services or for administrative purposes; or ... sale in the ordinary course of business’.
[IAS 40.5]. Therefore in the case outlined above, the property does not meet the definition
of investment property. Properties intended for sale in the ordinary course of business,
no matter whether leased out or not, are outside the scope of IAS 40. However, if a
property is not intended for sale, IAS 40 requires it to be transferred from inventory to
investment property when there is a change in use. The change can be evidenced by
the commencement of an operating lease to another party (see Chapter 19 at 9).
4.2
Costs of real estate inventory
4.2.1
Allocation of costs to individual units in multi-unit developments
A real estate developer of a multi-unit complex will be able to track and record various
costs that are specific to individual units, such as individual fit out costs. However there
will also be various costs that are incurred which are not specific to any individual unit,
such as the costs of land and any shared facilities, and a methodology will be required
to allocate these costs to the individual units. This will of course impact the profit that
is recognised on the sale of each individual unit.
There are two general approaches to this allocation, both of which we believe are
acceptable under IAS 2. The first approach is to allocate these non-unit specific costs
based on some relative cost basis. A reasonable proxy of relative cost is likely to be the
1596 Chapter 22
size of each unit and hence an appropriate methodology would be to allocate the non-
unit specific cost per square metre to the individual units based upon the floor area of
each unit. Another proxy of (total) relative cost may be the use of the specific cost of
each unit. Marking up the specific cost that is attributable to each unit by a fixed
percentage so as to cover and account for the non-unit specific costs would also seem
reasonable. This relative cost approach is consistent with the guidance under IAS 2 in
respect of allocation of overheads which requires a ‘systematic allocation of fixed and
variable production overheads’. [IAS 2.12].
The second approach would be to allocate these non-unit specific costs based on the
relative sales value of each unit. This methodology is specifically referred to by the
standard in the context of a production process that results in more than one product
being produced simultaneously. [IAS 2.14]. Whichever approach is adopted it must be
used consistently. In addition the developer should initially, as far as is practicable,
segregate the non-unit specific costs between any commercial, retail and residential
components before applying these methodologies.
4.2.2
Property demolition and operating lease costs
During the course of a property redevelopment project, an existing building may need
to be demolished in order for the new development to take place. Should the cos
t of
the building to be demolished be capitalised as part of the construction cost for the new
building or should the cost be charged to profit or loss?
In all such cases an entity will need to exercise judgement in assessing the facts and
circumstances. There are three distinct scenarios to consider:
(a) the entity is the owner-occupier, in which case the matter falls under IAS 16;
(b) the entity holds the property to earn rentals, in which case the matter falls under
IAS 40;
(c) the entity sells such properties in its normal course of business.
IAS 2 defines inventories as assets (a) held for sale in the ordinary course of business; or
(b) in the process of production for such sale; or (c) in the form of materials or supplies
to be consumed in the production process or in the rendering of services. [IAS 2.6]. The
cost of inventories must comprise all costs of purchase, costs of conversion and other
costs incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.
[IAS 2.10].
If it is the strategy of the developer to sell the developed property after construction, the
new development falls within the scope of IAS 2, as it would be considered held for sale in
the normal course of business by the developer. The cost of the old building as well as
demolition costs and costs of developing the new one would be treated as inventory, but
must still be subject to the normal ‘lower of cost and net realisable value’ requirements.
In our view a similar approach can be applied to lease costs for the land upon which a
building is being constructed. For entities still applying IAS 17 the amount that can be
included in inventory will depend on whether the entity considers the land lease to be
a finance lease or an operating lease.
Inventories
1597
• If it is a finance lease, depreciation is an example of a fixed cost that can be
considered a cost of conversion. [IAS 2.12]. IAS 2 states that, in limited
circumstances, borrowing costs are to be included in the costs of inventories.
[IAS 2.17]. It is quite possible that buildings constructed for disposal on land
held under a finance lease could meet these criteria. See the discussion
at 3.1.3.C above.
• If the entity considers it to be an operating lease, the operating lease costs could
be considered costs of conversion.
Alternatively, the entity could consider that the operating lease costs are for the
right to control the land during the lease period rather than costs in bringing this
inventory to any particular condition, in which case it may be appropriate to
expense the costs.
For entities applying IFRS 16, paragraph 12 of IAS 2 is amended by IFRS 16 to include a
reference to the depreciation charge on right-of use assets used in the production
process. The detailed requirements of IFRS 16 are discussed in Chapter 24.
5
RECOGNITION IN PROFIT OR LOSS
IAS 2 specifies that when inventory is sold, the carrying amount of the inventory must
be recognised as an expense in the period in which the revenue is recognised. [IAS 2.34].
Judging when to recognise revenue, and therefore to charge the inventory expense, is
one of the more complex accounting issues that can arise, particularly in the context of
extended payment arrangements and manufacturer financing of sales to customers. In
some industries, for example automobile manufacturing and retailing, aircraft
manufacturing, railway carriage manufacturing and maintenance, and mobile phone
handset retailing, it is customary for the goods concerned to be subject to extended and
complex delivery, sales and settlement arrangements. For these types of transactions,
the accounting problem that arises principally concerns when to recognise revenue, the
consequent derecognition of inventory being driven by the revenue recognition
judgement, not vice-versa.
Consignment stock and sales with a right of return are discussed at 2.3.1.F above, and
sales with a right of return are discussed at 2.3.1.G above. In addition, revenue
recognition in accordance with IFRS 15 is dealt with in Chapter 28, to which reference
should be made in considering such issues.
Inventory that goes into the creation of another asset, for instance into a self-
constructed item of property, plant or equipment, would form part of the cost of that
asset. Subsequently these costs are expensed through the depreciation of that item of
property, plant and equipment during its useful life. [IAS 2.35].
Any write-downs or losses of inventory must be recognised as an expense when the
write-down or loss occurs. Reversals of previous write-downs are recognised as a
reduction in the inventory expense recognised in the period in which the reversal
occurs. [IAS 2.34].
1598 Chapter 22
6
DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS OF IAS 2
The financial statements should disclose:
(a) the accounting policies adopted in measuring inventories, including the cost
formula used;
(b) the total carrying amount of inventories and the carrying amount in classifications
appropriate to the entity;
(c) the carrying amount of inventories carried at fair value less costs to sell;
(d) the amount of inventories recognised as an expense during the period;
(e) the amount of any write-down of inventories recognised as an expense in the period;
(f) the amount of any reversal of any write-down that is recognised as a reduction in
the amount of inventories recognised as expense in the period;
(g) the circumstances or events that led to the reversal of a write-down of inventories;
and
(h) the carrying amount of inventories pledged as security for liabilities. [IAS 2.36].
IAS 2 does not specify the precise classifications that must be used to comply with (b)
above. However it states that ‘information about the carrying amounts held in different
classifications of inventories and the extent of the changes in these assets is useful to
financial statement users’, and suggests suitable examples of common classifications
such as merchandise, production supplies, materials, work-in-progress, and finished
goods. [IAS 2.37].
Extract 22.3 below shows how the Unilever Group disclosed the relevant information.
Extract 22.3: Unilever PLC and Unilever N.V. (2017)
NOTES TO THE CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS [extract]
12. INVENTORIES [extract]
€ million
€ million
Inventories
2017
2016
Raw materials and consumables
1,274
1,385
Finished goods and goods for resale
2,688
2,893
3,962
4,278
Inventories with a value of €92 million (2016: €110 million) are carried at net realisable value, this being lower than
cost. During 2017, €109 million (2016: €113 million) was charged to the income statement for damaged, obsolete
and lost inventories. In 2017, €90 million (2016: €113 million) was utilised or released to the income statement from
inventory provisions taken in earlier years.
The amount of inventory recognised as an expense in the period is normally included
in cost of sales; this category includes unallocated production overheads and abnormal
costs as well as the costs of inventory that has been sold. However, the circumstances
of the entity may warrant the inclusion of distribution or other costs in cost of sales.
[IAS 2.38]. Hence when a company presents its profit or loss based upon this IAS 1 –
Presentation of Financial Statements – ‘function of expense’ or ‘cost of sales’ method it
Inventories
1599
will normally be disclosing costs that are greater than those that have previously been
classified as inventory, but this appears to be explicitly allowable by the standard.
Extract 22.4 below shows how Stora Enso classified its inventories in its 2017
financial statements.
Extract 22.4: Stora Enso Oyj (2017)
Notes to the Consolidated financial statements [extract]
Note 16
Inventories [extract]
As at 31 December
EUR million
2017
2016
Materials and supplies
308
332
Work in progress
81
77
Finished goods
649
651
Spare parts and consumables
279
282
Other inventories
15
15
Advance payments and cutting rights
97
102
Obsolescence allowance – spare parts and consumables
–94
–98
Obsolescence allowance – finished goods
–10
–9
Net realisable value allowance
–4
–6
Total
1 321
1 346
EUR 15 (EUR 14) million of inventory write-downs have been recognised as an expense. EUR 18 (EUR 7) million
International GAAP® 2019: Generally Accepted Accounting Practice under International Financial Reporting Standards Page 315
