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Notes
Introduction
1. Marc Van De Mieroop, ‘Production and Commerce in the Old Babylonian Period’, in Rivista di storia economica, vol. 31, no. 1, April 2015, p. 86.
2. See paragraph 23 in Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, On Grammarians: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/de_Grammaticis*.html.
3. David Nonnis, ‘Le attività artigianali’, in Arnaldo Marcone (ed.), L’età romana. Liberi, semiliberi, e schiavi in una società premoderna, Castelvecchi, Rome 2016, p. 276.
4. Catharina Lis and Hugo Soly, Worthy Efforts: Attitudes to Work and Workers in Pre-Industrial Europe, Brill, Leiden and Boston, MA 2012, p. 59.
5. Jean-Paul Morel, ‘L’artigiano’, in L’uomo romano, ed. Andrea Giardina, Laterza, Rome-Bari 1989, pp. 235, 243, 252, 266.
6. Stefano Gasparri and Cristina La Rocca, Tempi barbarici. L’Europa occidentale tra antichità e medioevo (300–900), Carocci, Rome 2013, pp. 294–6.
7. Franco Franceschi and Ilaria Taddei, Le città italiane nel Medioevo, XII–XIV secolo, Il Mulino, Bologna 2012, pp. 73–7.
8. Samuel Kline Cohn, Jr., The Laboring Classes in Renaissance Florence, Academic Press, New York 1980, pp. 9–11, 69.
9. A thorough analysis can be found in Alessandro Stella, La révolte des ciompi. Les hommes, les lieux, le travail, Éditions de l’École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Paris 1993. Stella also discusses the historiography on whether the revolt could be qualified as an instance of the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, pp. 21–9; see also Walter Prevenier, ‘Conscience et perception de la condition sociale chez les gens du commun dans les anciens Pays-Bas des XIIIe et XIVe siècles’, in Le petit peuple dans l’Occident médiéval: Terminologies, perceptions, réalités, ed. Pierre Boglioni, Robert Delort, and Claude Gauvard, Publications de la Sorbonne, Paris 2002, pp. 177– 8.
10. Massimo Costantini, L’albero della libertà economica. Il processo di scioglimento delle corporazioni veneziane, Arsenale, Venice, 1987, pp. 22–3.
11. Ibid, pp. 34–8.
12. Catharina Lis and Hugo Soly, Poverty and Capitalism in Pre-Industrial Europe, Harvester Press, Hassocks, Sussex 1979, p. 64.
13. See Pierre Jouanique, ‘Three Medieval Merchants: Francesco di Marco Datini, Jacques Coeur and Benedetto Cotrugli’, Accounting, Business & Financial History, vol. 6, no. 3, 1996, pp. 261–75.
14. Hammurabi, The Code of Hammurabi, trans. L. W. King, 1915: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/ham/index.htm, and see also Van De Mieroop, ‘Production and Commerce in the Old Babylonian Period’, p. 88.
15. Lis and Soly, Worthy Efforts, pp. 442– 4.
16. On Bruges and Antwerp see J. L. Bolton and F. G. Bruscoli, ‘When Did Antwerp Replace Bruges as the Commercial and Financial Centre of North-Western Europe? The Evidence of the Borromei Ledger for 1438’, The Economic History Review, vol. 61, 2008, pp. 360–79.
17. Richard A. Goldthwaite, ‘The Economy of Renaissance Italy: The Preconditions for Luxury Consumption’, in I Tatti Studies: Essays in the Renaissance, vol. 2, Villa I Tatti and Harvard University Center, Florence 1987, p. 19.
18. Ibid, p. 31.
19. Jan de Vries and Ad van der Woude, The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815, Cambridge University Press 1997, pp. 334–6 and 129.
20. Ibid, p. 270.
21. Ibid, p. 174.
22. Robert P. Brenner, ‘The Low Countries in the Transition to Capitalism’, Journal of Agrarian Change, vol. 1, no. 2, April 2001, pp. 215–18, 224.
23. See the analysis in Jonathan I. Israel, Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585–1740, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1989, p. 361.
24. Daniel Defoe, A Tour Thro’ the Whole Island of Great Britain: Divided into Circuits or Journeys, S. Birt, T. Osborne, et al., London 1748, p. 101 (first published 1724).
25. E. A. Wrigley, ‘Brake or Accelerator? Urban Growth and Population Growth before the Industrial Revolution’, in Urbanization in History: A Process of Dynamic Interactions, ed. Ad van der Woude, Akira Hayami, and Jan De Vries, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995, p. 107.
26. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire 1875–1914, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1987, p. 343.
27. See Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great
Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy, Princeton University Press 2000, p. 206. This important book has sparked a major debate. Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta argue that the advanced parts of India and China were similar to the less advanced parts of Europe; see their ‘The Early Modern Great Divergence: Wages, Prices and Economic Development in Europe and Asia, 1500–1800’, Economic History Review, vol. 59, no. 1, 2006, pp. 2–31. See also Prasannan Parthasarathi, ‘Review Article: The Great Divergence’, Past & Present, no. 176, 2002, pp. 275–93. The wider controversy on the ‘West and the Rest’ or ‘eurocentrics’ versus ‘orientalists’ is ably explored (but with little impartiality) by Joseph M. Bryant, ‘The West and the Rest Revisited: Debating Capitalist Origins, European Colonialism, and the Advent of Modernity’, Canadian Journal of Sociology, vol. 31, no. 4, Autumn 2006, pp. 403–44. A more favourable review is P. H. H. Vries, ‘Are Coal and Colonies Really Crucial? Kenneth Pomeranz and the Great Divergence’, Journal of World History, vol. 12, no. 2, Fall 2001. See also Fernand Braudel, Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe–XVIIIe siècle, vol. 2: Les jeux de l’échange, Armand Colin, Paris 1979, esp. pp. 495–534; Joel Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain, 1700–1850, Yale University Press 2009, p. 100.
28. Robert C. Allen, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, Cambridge University Press 2009, p. 81.
29. Ibid, p. 82.
30. Ibid, esp. chapter 6; on the amateur nature of British inventors see Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: , Oxford University Press 1990, p. 244.
31. Allen, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, chapter 4, esp. pp. 25–28ff.
32. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, Progress Publishers, Moscow 1965, p. 759.
33. See Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History, Knopf, New York 2014, p. 244.
34. This is the substance of Joel Mokyr’s explanation in his The Enlightened Economy, see esp. pp. 95, 106–23ff. Robert Allen disputed with considerable evidence any close connection between inventors and the Enlightenment; see his The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, chapter 10.
35. Paul Bairoch, ‘Le mythe de la croissance économique rapide au XIXe siècle’, Revue de l’Institut de Sociolo-gie, no. 2, 1962, pp. 312–17.
36. H. J. Habakkuk, American and British Technology in the 19th Century: The Search for Labour-Saving Inventions, Cambridge University Press 1962, pp. 4–5.
37. Firouzeh Nahavandi, ‘Développement et globalization’, in Firouzeh Nahavandi (ed.), Globalisation et néolibéralisme dans le tiers-monde, L’Harmattan, Paris 2000, p. 20.
38. See Adam Przeworski, ‘The Last Instance: Are Institutions the Primary Cause of Economic Development?’, Archives Européennes de sociologie, vol. 45, no. 2, 2004, pp. 165–67, and Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance, Cambridge University Press 1990, p. 110.
39. Barry Supple, ‘The State and the Industrial Revolution 1700–1914’, in The Fontana Economic History of Europe, ed. Carlo M. Cipolla, vol. 3: The Industrial Revolution, Collins, Glasgow 1980, pp. 326–30.
40. Paul Johnson, Making the Market: Victorian Origins of Corporate Capitalism, Cambridge University Press 2010, p. 11.
41. Martin J. Daunton, Royal Mail: The Post Office since 1840, Bloomsbury, London 2015, pp. 19, 36.
42. Colin J. Holmes, ‘Laissez-Faire in Theory and Practice: Britain 1800–1875’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 5, no. 3, Winter 1976, pp. 684–5.
43. R. W. Ferrier, The History of the British Petroleum Company, vol. 1: The Developing Years 1901–1932, Cambridge University Press 1982, pp. 190–201.
44. See data in Brian R. Mitchell’s International Historical Statistics: Europe 1750–2005 and International Historical Statistics: The Americas 1750–2005, Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2007.
45. Lloyd G. Reynolds, ‘The Spread of Economic Growth to the Third World: 1850–1980’, Journal of Economic Literature, vol. XXI, September 1983, p. 959.
46. Eurostat: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php?title=File:Shares_in_the_world_market_for_exports,_2010_%28%25_share_of_world_exports%29.png&filetimestamp=20121008124241, and: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php?title=File:Shares_in_the_world_market_for_imports,_2010_%28%25_share_of_world_imports%29.png&filetimestamp=20121008124249
47. Leslie Hannah, ‘Logistics, Market Size, and Giant Plants in the Early Twentieth Century: A Global View’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 68, no. 1, March 2008, p. 61.
48. Bernard Michel, ‘La révolution industrielle dans les pays tchèques au XIXe siècle’, Annales, vol. 20, no. 5, September–October 1965, pp. 984–1,105.
49. Michel Hau, ‘Industrialization and Culture: The Case of Alsace’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 29, nos 2–3, Autumn–Winter 2000, pp. 295–9.
50. All figures in Paul Bairoch, Victoires et déboires, vol. II: Histoire économique et sociale du monde du XVIe siècle à nos jours, Folio Gallimard, Paris 1997, p. 16.
51. See data in Mitchell’s European Historical Statistics 1750–2005 and International Historical Statistics: The Americas 1750–2005.
52. Sven Beckert, ‘Emancipation and Empire: Reconstructing the Worldwide Web of Cotton Production in the Age of the American Civil War’, American Historical Review, vol. 109, no. 5, December 2004, p. 1,437.
53. World Bank (on the basis of ILO figures): http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.IND.EMPL.ZS?end=2010&start=2006&view=map
54. UN: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp? Cl=17&Lg=1&Co=D
55. Hannah, ‘Logistics, Market Size, and Giant Plants in the Early Twentieth Century’, p. 53.
56. Patrick Verley, La première révolution industrielle, Armand Colin, Paris 2006, pp. 79–80, 106–7.
57. Théophile Gautier, ‘Eugène Plon. Thorvaldsen, sa vie et son oeuvre’, Le Moniteur Universel, 8 July 1867. ‘D’un côté, la modernité la plus extrême; de l’autre, l’amour austère de l’antique.’
58. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, Longmans, Green and Co., London 1904, p. 351.
59. Joyce Appleby, The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism, W. W. Norton & Co., New York 2011, p. 12.
60. Adam Tooze, The Deluge: The Great War and the Remaking of the Global Order, 1916–1931, Allen Lane, London 2014, p. 463.
61. Jenny Chan, Ngai Pun, and Mark Selden, ‘Labour Protests and Trade Union Reforms in China’, in Jan Drahokoupil, Rutvica Andrijasevic, and Devi Sacchetto (eds), Flexible Workforces and Low Profit Margins: Electronics Assembly between Europe and China, ETUI (Europe Trade Union Institute), Brussels 2016, p. 207, and, in the same collection, Wolfgang Müller, ‘Foxconn Economics: How Much Room for Better Pay and Conditions?’, p. 166.
62. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, pp. 254–5.
63. Jean-Charles Asselain, ‘L’expérience chinoise en perspective historique. Un regard occidental’, Revue d’études comparatives Est-Ouest, vol. 30, nos 2–3, 1999, p. 348.
64. E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871, Cambridge University Press 1989, p. 210.
65. Thomas Carlyle, ‘Signs of the Times’, The Collected Works, vol. III, Chapman and Hall, London 1858, p. 100 (published in the Edinburgh Review).
66. Ibid, vol. III, p. 111.
67. Juan Donoso Cortés, Essay on Catholicism, Liberalism, and Socialism Considered in their Fundamental Principles, J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, PA 1862, pp. 257, 175–6.
68. Jack Hayward, Fragmented France: Two Centuries of Disputed Identity, Oxford University Press 2007, p. 192.
69. Gabriel Ardant, Histoire financière. De l’antiquité à nos jours, Gallimard, Paris 1976, p. 329.
70. Alexis de Tocqueville, The Ancien Régime and the French Revolution, trans. Arthur Goldhammer, Cambridge University Press 2011, p. 157.
71. Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, Il gattopardo, Feltrinelli,
Milan 2002, p. 41.
72. Michael Bentley, Lord Salisbury’s World: Conservative Environments in Late-Victorian Britain, Cambridge University Press 2001, pp. 252–3.
73. Lord Salisbury, Quarterly Review, vol. 117, no. 233, 1865, p. 550, cited in Lord Salisbury on Politics: A Selection from his Articles in the Quarterly Review, 1860–83 , ed. Paul Smith, Cambridge University Press 1972, p. 24.
74. Werner Sombart, Krieg und Kapitalismus, Duncker & Humblot, Munich and Leipzig 1913, p. 207; Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Unwin, London 1965, p. 83. Hugo Reinert and Erik S. Reinert trace the idea back to Nietzsche and before him to Hinduism, which so inspired Nietzsche; see their ‘Creative Destruction in Economics: Nietzsche, Sombart, Schumpeter’, in Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900): Economy and Society, ed. Jürgen Georg Backhaus and Wolfgang Drechsler, Springer, New York 2006.
75. Jerry Z. Muller, The Mind and the Market: Capitalism in Modern European Thought, Knopf, New York 2002, p. 295.
76. Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Beacon Press, Boston, MA 1992, p. 8. This is the classic text on the subject, first published in 1944.
77. Kevin H. O’Rourke and Jeffrey G. Williamson, Globalisation and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 1999, p. 14 and esp. chapter 2.
78. Eric J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780, Cambridge University Press 1993, p. 132.
79. Jeffrey D. Sachs and Andrew Warner, Economic Reform and the Process of Global Integration, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 1995, p. 5.
80. Maurice Obstfeld and Alan M. Taylor, ‘Globalization and Capital Markets’, in Michael D. Bordo, Alan M. Taylor, and Jeffrey G. Williamson (eds), Globalization in Historical Perspective, University of Chicago Press 2003, p. 127.
81. Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick 2011, p. 156.
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