5. Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective, p. 17.
6. Boris Chicherin, Liberty, Equality, and the Market: Essays by B. N. Chicherin, ed. and trans. G. M. Hamburg, Yale University Press 1998, p. 133.
7. Milyoukov, Russia and its Crisis, p. 225.
8. Ibid, p. 226.
9. Alexander Herzen, Selected Philosophical Works, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow 1956, p. 35 (‘Dilettantism in Science’, 1843).
10. S. V. Tiutiukin, ‘Where Were the Socialists Leading Russia in the Early Twentieth Century?’, Russian Studies in History, vol. 42, no. 4, Spring 2004, pp. 38–45.
11. Andrzej Walicki, The Slavophile Controversy: History of a Conservative Utopia in Nineteenth-Century Russian Thought, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1975, pp. 588–90.
12. Alexander Herzen, My Past and Thoughts: The Memoirs of Alexander Herzen, Chatto and Windus, London 1974, pp. 302–3.
13. Andrzej Walicki, A History of Russian Thought: From the Enlightenment to Marxism, Stanford University Press 1979, pp. 95–8.
14. Nikolai Berdyaev, The Russian Idea, Macmillan, New York 1946, p. 101.
15. Walicki, A History of Russian Thought, p. 92.
16. S. Frederick Starr, ‘August von Haxthausen and Russia’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 46, no. 107, July 1968, p. 462.
17. August von Haxthausen, The Russian Empire, its People, Institutions, and Resources, Chapman and Hall, London 1856, vol. 2, pp. 229–31; this is a shortened translation of the original.
18. Karl Marx, Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy (Rough Draft), Penguin, London 1973, p. 750.
19. Berdyaev, The Russian Idea, p. 104.
20. Ivan Turgenev, Smoke: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/turgenev/ivan/smoke/chapter05.html
21. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, The Devils, trans. Michael R. Katz, Oxford University Press 2008, p. 35.
22. Yoshio Imai, ‘N. G. Chernyshevskii: Pioneer of the Russian Cooperative Movement’, in Don Karl Rowney (ed.), Imperial Power and Development: Papers on Pre-Revolutionary Russian History, Slavica Publishers, Columbus, OH 1990, pp. 136, 144; Nikolai Chernyshevski, Critique of Philosophical Prejudices against Communal Ownership (1859), extract in Teodor Shanin (ed.), Late Marx and the Russian Road: Marx and ‘the peripheries of capitalism’, Monthly Review Press, New York 1983, p. 182.
23. Shanin (ed.), Late Marx and the Russian Road, p. 187.
24. Nikolai Chernyshevski (Nikolaï G. Tchernuishevsky), A Vital Question; or, What Is To Be Done?, trans. N. Haskell Dole and S. S. Skidelsky, Crowell, New York 1886, p. 185.
25. Walicki, The Slavophile Controversy, p. 403.
26. See text of letter in Shanin (ed.), Late Marx and the Russian Road, p. 98; the entire Zasulich–Marx exchange is on pp. 97–126.
27. Marx and Engels, Correspondence 1846–1895, p. 354.
28. Shanin (ed.), Late Marx and the Russian Road, p. 124.
29. Ibid, p. 131.
30. Milyoukov, Russia and its Crisis, p. 343.
31. Walicki, The Slavophile Controversy, p. 460.
32. Anatoli Vichnevski, La faucille et le rouble. La modernisation conservatrice en URSS, Gallimard, Paris 2000, p. 153.
33. Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective, p. 17.
34. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, p. 76.
35. Arcadius Kahan, Russian Economic History: The Nineteenth Century, Chicago University Press 1989, p. 13; Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, p. 3.
36. Spencer E. Roberts, Essays in Russian Literature: The Conservative View: Leontiev, Rozanov, Shestov, Ohio University Press 1968, p. vii.
37. V. L. Stepanov, ‘Finance Ministry Policy in the 1880s and the Unrealized Potential for Economic Modernization in Russia’, Russian Studies in History, vol. 42, no. 4, Spring 2004, p. 16.
38. Gorlin, ‘Problems of Tax Reform in Imperial Russia’, p. 246.
39. Alexander Gerschenkron, ‘Russia: Agrarian Policies and Industrialization, 1861–1917’, in Alexander Gerschenkron, Continuity in History and Other Essays, Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA 1968, p. 145.
40. Jacob W. Kipp successfully rescues Reutern from oblivion in ‘M. Kh. Reutern on the Russian State and Economy: A Liberal Bureaucrat during the Crimean Era, 1854–60’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 47, no. 3, September 1975, esp. pp. 438–9.
41. Alfred J. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia, University of North Carolina Press 1982, p. 73.
42. Ibid, pp. 52–73.
43. Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms, p. 21.
44. Modest Mussorgsky, Boris Godunov, text in CD Sony Classical Berliner Philharmoniker directed by Claudio Abbado, p. 232, trans. Pamela Davidson.
45. Nicolas Berdyaev, The Origin of Russian Communism, Geoffrey Bles, London 1955, p. 7.
46. Gerschenkron, ‘Russia: Agrarian Policies and Industrialization, 1861–1917’, p. 189.
47. Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891–1924, Pimlico, London 1996, p. 106.
48. Nikolay A. Nekrasov, Who Can Be Free and Happy in Russia?: http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/9619/pg9619.html
49. Leroy-Beaulieu, L’empire des Tsars et les Russes, pp. 427–8.
50. Figes, A People’s Tragedy, pp. 107–8.
51. Charles Normand, La bourgeoisie française au XVIIe siècle, Alcan, Paris 1908, p. 9: http://ia700306.us.archive.org/BookReader/BookReaderImages.php?zip=/29/items/labourgeoisiefra00normuoft/labourgeoisiefra00normuoft_jp2.zip&file=labourgeoisiefra00normuoft_jp2/labourgeoisiefra00normuoft_0023.jp2&scale=6&rotate=0
52. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, p. 93.
53. Aleksandr I. Fenin, Coal and Politics in Late Imperial Russia: Memoirs of a Russian Mining Engineer, ed. Susan McCaffray, Northern Illinois University Press 1990, p. 114.
54. Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, pp. 209–10; see also Sidney Harcave, Count Sergei Witte and the Twilight of Imperial Russia, M. E. Sharpe, New York, NY 2004, p. 89.
55. Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, p. 52.
56. Ibid, p. 76.
57. Theodore H. Von Laue, ‘A Secret Memorandum of Sergei Witte on the Industrialization of Imperial Russia’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 26, no. 1, March 1954, pp. 101, 116–17.
58. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, ‘Geók Tepé: What is Asia to Us’, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, in The Diary of a Writer, Ianmead, Haslemere 1984, p. 1,044.
59. Beckert, ‘Emancipation and Empire’, p. 1,430.
60. Nikolaj Danilevskij, La doctrine Panslaviste d’après N. J. Danilewsky (including La Russie et l’Europe, based on the 4th edition, St Petersburg, 1889), ed. J. J. Skupiewski, Bureaux de la Liberté Roumaine, Bucharest 1890, pp. 46–7, 63, 71–2 (an abridged version of the original).
61. Stefan Plaggenborg, ‘Who Paid for the Industrialisation of Tsarist Russia?’, Revolutionary Russia, vol. 3, no. 2, December 1990, p. 183; see also, by the same author, ‘Tax Policy and the Question of Peasant Poverty in Tsarist Russia 1881–1905’, Cahiers du Monde russe, vol. 36, nos 1–2, January–June 1995, pp. 53–69.
62. Macey, Government and , p. 43.
63. Gregory, ‘Economic Growth and Structural Change in Tsarist Russia’; Alexander Gerschenkron, ‘The Rate of Industrial Growth in Russia since 1885’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 7, Supplement: Economic Growth: A Symposium (1947), p. 145.
64. S. A. Smith, Russia in Revolution: An Empire in Crisis, 1890 to 1928, Oxford University Press 2017, p. 35.
65. Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution, p. 564. This text was regarded as so significant that its translation into English was sponsored by the American Council of Learned Societies.
66. Nicholas Khristianovich Bunge, The Years 1881–1894 in Russia: A Memorandum Found in the Papers of N. Kh. Bunge. A Translation and Commentary, ed. George E. Snow, in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 71, part 6, Philadelphia, PA 1981, p
p. 21, 51ff, 61–2.
67. George E. Snow, ‘Introduction’, in ibid, pp. 8–9; Plaggenborg, ‘Who Paid for the Industrialisation of Tsarist Russia?’, pp. 187–90.
68. See data in Plaggenborg, ‘Who Paid for the Industrialisation of Tsarist Russia?’, p. 203. For Gerschenkron’s position, see ‘Russia: Agrarian Policies and Industrialization, 1861–1917’, pp. 140–254.
69. Stepanov, ‘Nikolai Khristianovich Bunge’, p. 61.
70. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, p. 79.
71. Harcave, Count Sergei Witte and the Twilight of Imperial Russia, p. 49.
72. See Macey, Government and Peasant in Russia, 1861–1906, p. 63. For Lenin’s abuse, see Comrade Workers, Forward to the Last, Decisive Fight! (1918) in his Collected Works, Progress Publishers, Moscow, vol. 28, 1965, pp. 53–7.
73. Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, pp. 386–7.
74. Ruth A. Roosa, Russian Industrialists in an Era of Revolution, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY 1997, p. 90.
75. Crisp, Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914, p. 23.
76. Spulber, Russia’s Economic Transitions, p. 57.
77. Raymond W. Goldsmith, ‘The Economic Growth of Tsarist Russia 1860–1913’, Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 9, no. 3, Essays in the Quantitative Study of Economic Growth, April 1961, p. 441.
78. Gerschenkron, ‘The Rate of Industrial Growth in Russia since 1885’, p. 152.
79. Macey, Government and Peasant in Russia, 1861–1906, pp. 238, 121 and 214.
80. Quoted in Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution, p. 431.
81. Crisp, Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914, p. 21.
82. V. T. Loginov, ‘Stolypin as Reformer’, Russian Studies in History, vol. 42, no. 4, Spring 2004, pp. 22–4.
83. Carol S. Leonard, Agrarian Reform in Russia: The Road from Serfdom, Cambridge University Press 2011, p. 56.
84. See Alexander Gerschenkron, ‘The Rate of Industrial Growth in Russia since 1885’.
85. Peter Gatrell, ‘Industrial Expansion in Tsarist Russia, 1908–14’, Economic History Review, vol. 35, no. 1, February 1982, pp. 100, 104–5.
86. Goldsmith, ‘The Economic Growth of Tsarist Russia, 1860–1913’, pp. 442–3.
87. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, pp. 102–3, 106–7, 113.
88. Fedor, Patterns of Urban Growth in the Russian Empire during the Nineteenth Century, p. 95.
89. Ibid, p. 175.
90. Ibid, p. 152.
91. Arcadius Kahan, ‘Government Policies and the Industrialization of Russia’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 27, no. 4, December 1967, pp. 461, 477.
92. Gerschenkron, ‘The Rate of Industrial Growth in Russia since 1885’, p. 156.
93. Gregory, ‘Economic Growth and Structural Change in Tsarist Russia’, pp. 420, 424.
94. Paul Bew, Land and the National Question in Ireland, 1858–82, Gill and Macmillan, Dublin 1978, p. 5.
95. Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, p. 388.
96. Sergio Bertolissi, Un paese sull’orlo delle riforme. La Russia zarista dal 1861 al 1904, Franco Angeli, Milan 1998, p. 37.
97. Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, p. 81.
98. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia, pp. 137, 417.
99. Berdyaev, The Origin of Russian Communism, p. 65.
100. Spulber, Russia’s Economic Transitions, p. 42.
101. Theodore H. Von Laue, ‘Legal Marxism and the “Fate of Capitalism in Russia”’, Review of Politics, vol. 18, no. 1, January 1956, pp. 28–9.
102. V. I. Lenin, ‘The Agrarian Programme of Social-Democracy in the First Russian Revolution, 1905–1907’, in Collected Works, vol. 13, Progress Publishers, Moscow 1972, p. 239.
9. The American Challenge and the Love of Capital
1. Charles W. Calhoun (ed.), The Gilded Age, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD 2007, pp. 2 and 12; railways statistics from US Census Office, Report on Transportation Business in the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, pp. 3–6: http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/1890a_v14p1-01.pdf
2. Michael Schwartz, Radical Protest and Social Structure: The Southern Farmers’ Alliance and Cotton Tenancy, 1880–1890, University of Chicago Press 1976, p. 5.
3. Cited in Hans Rogger, ‘Amerikanizm and the Economic Development of Russia’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 23, no. 3, July 1981, p. 410.
4. Aleksandr Blok, ‘Novaia Amerika’, in Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh (Moscow 1955), vol. 1, cited in Rogger, ‘Amerikanizm and the Economic Development of Russia’, p. 411; the translation is by V. de S. Pinto and is taken from A Second Book of Russian Verse, ed. C. M. Bowra (Macmillan, London 1948).
5. John Donne, ‘To His Mistress Going to Bed’, Elegy XX.
6. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, Chapter 5, Section 49: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm
7. W. T. Stead, The Americanization of the World, or The Trend of the Twentieth Century, Horace Markley, New York 1902, pp. 4, 442.
8. Alexis de Tocqueville, De la démocratie en Amérique, vol. 3, Pagnerre, Paris 1848, p. 70.
9. Walt Whitman, ‘As I Sat Alone by Blue Ontario’s Shores’ (1867), from Leaves of Grass.
10. US Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/table-16.pdf; Census Bureau Population Clock: https://www.census.gov/popclock/?intcmp=home_pop, accessed 10 May 2017.
11. Karl Marx, 7 November 1861, New-York Daily Tribune: https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1861/11/07a.htm
12. Beckert, ‘Emancipation and Empire’, p. 1,409.
13. Eugene Genovese, The Southern Tradition: The Achievement and Limitations of an American Conservatism, Harvard University Press 1994, p. 31.
14. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, p. 114.
15. Caitlin C. Rosenthal, ‘From Memory to Mastery: Accounting for Control in America, 1750–1880’, Enterprise & Society, vol. 14, no. 4, December 2013, p. 735.
16. Herbert Gutman’s critique of this book centres on the alleged beliefs and behaviour of the slaves, not on the claim by Fogel and Engerman that slave plantations were more efficient than northern farms. See Herbert G. Gutman, Slavery and the Numbers Game: A Critique of ‘Time on the Cross’, University of Illinois Press 1975.
17. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, p. 116.
18. Ibid, p. 118.
19. Ibid, p. 121.
20. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese and Eugene D. Genovese, Slavery in White and Black: Class and Race in the Southern Slaveholders’ New World Order, Cambridge University Press 2008, p. 31.
21. Ibid, p. 47.
22. Glenn Porter, ‘Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business’, in Calhoun (ed.), The Gilded Age, p. 13.
23. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America, p. 5.
24. Michael Lind, The Next American Nation: The New Nationalism and the Fourth American Revolution, The Free Press, London 1995, p. 41.
25. See Irving Kristol, ‘Urban Civilization and its Discontents’, Commentary, July 1970; the text was based on Kristol’s inaugural lecture on assuming the Professorship of Urban Values at New York University in 1969.
26. Maury Klein, The Genesis of Industrial America, 1870–1920, Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 12.
27. Eric Foner, Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and its Legacy, Louisiana State University Press 1983, p. 40.
28. Ibid, pp. 46, 72.
29. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, Harper and Row, New York 1988, pp. 213–14.
30. Foner, ‘Why is there no Socialism in the United States?’, History Workshop Journal, no. 17, 1984, p. 62.
31. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, Albert Saifer, Philadelphia, PA 1935, p. 30.
32. Beckert, ‘Emancipation and Empire’, p. 1,409; see also Beckert, Empire of Cotton.
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33. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, see Chapter 3, pp. 111–55.
34. Roy, Socializing Capital, p. 129. Note that some argue that the Civil War did not alter radically the path of industrialization: Claudia D. Goldin and Frank D. Lewis, ‘The Economic Cost of the American Civil War: Estimates and Implications’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 35, no. 2, June 1975, p. 321.
35. Foner, Reconstruction, pp. 461–3.
36. Barry R. Chiswick and Timothy J. Hatton, ‘International Migration and the Integration of Labor Markets’, in Bordo, Taylor and Williamson (eds), Globalization in Historical Perspective, pp. 67–70.
37. Jeff Madrick, The Case for Big Government, Princeton University Press 2009, p. 43.
38. W. Elliot Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America: A Short History, Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 23; for 2015, OECD data.
39. Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America, pp. 26–7.
40. Richard F. Bensel, The Political Economy of American Industrialization, 1877–1900, Cambridge University Press 2000, p. 13.
41. Robin Blackburn, ‘State of the Union: Marx and America’s Unfinished Revolution’, New Left Review, no. 61, January–February 2010, p. 166; Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right, Hill and Wang, New York 1995, p. 69.
42. Bureau of Labour Statistics: https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes339032.htm and https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes333051.htm. See also Claire Provost, ‘The Industry of Inequality: Why the World is Obsessed with Private Security’, The Guardian, 12 May 2017: https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2017/may/12/industry-of-inequality-why-world-is-obsessed-with-private-security
43. Glenn Porter, ‘Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business’, p. 15.
44. J. W. von Goethe, Werke, vol. 1, Christian Wegner Verlag, Hamburg 1952, p. 333.
45. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, vol. 1, p. 193.
46. Stendhal, La Chartreuse de Parme, Nelson, Paris 1839, p. 141.
47. Alexis de Tocqueville, De la démocratie en Amérique, vol. 1, Pagnerre, Paris 1848, p. 80.
48. Benjamin Franklin, ‘Advice to a Young Tradesman, Written by an Old One’, 1748: http://franklinpapers.org/franklin//framedvolumes.jsp;jsessionid=608ADED3CD5C773C127B274349F89A31
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