32. On the severity of the crisis see Gianni Toniolo, Storia economica dell’Italia liberale, 1850–1918, Il Mullino, Bologna 1988, pp. 139ff.
33. Giovanni Giolitti, Speech in Dronero, 19 October 1896, Discorsi extraparlamentari, p. 149.
34. All union membership figure in Bairoch, Victoires et déboires, vol. II, p. 491.
35. Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing, p. 101.
36. Daunton, ‘“Gentlemanly Capitalism” and British Industry 1820– 1914’, p. 155.
37. Breton, ‘La perception de la “grande dépression” de la fin du XIXe siècle (1873–1896)’, p. 205.
38. Jean Leduc, Histoire de la France: l’enracinement de la République, 1879–1918, Hachette, Paris 1991, pp. 132– 3.
39. Shorter and Tilly, Strikes in France, 1830–1968, p. 112.
40. Ibid, p. 114.
41. Émile Cheysson, La crise du revenue et la loi du travail, Comité de défense et de progrès social, Paris 1898, p. 45, text of lecture held in Amiens, 6 April 1897.
42. Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire, p. 119.
43. Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, p. 421.
44. J. A. Hobson, ‘The General Election: A Sociological Interpretation’, Sociological Review, vol. 3, 1910, pp. 112–13, cited in Peter Cain, ‘J. A. Hobson, Financial Capitalism and Imperialism in Late Victorian and Edwardian England’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 13, no. 3, May 1985, pp. 8–9.
45. Smith, ‘The Ideology of German Colonialism, 1840–1906’, pp. 646–7.
46. Otto Pflanze, Bismarck and the Development of Germany, vol. III: The Period of Fortification, 1880–1898, Princeton University Press 1990, pp. 3–4, 7, 9, 14.
47. Puissant, ‘1886, La contre-réforme sociale?’, p. 70.
20. Protecting the Economy
1. Bairoch, Economics and World History, p. 18.
2. Dale C. Copeland, Economic Interdependence and War, Princeton University Press 2015, p. 99.
3. David Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904–1914, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1996, pp. 26–7, 331.
4. Becker, The Monied Metropolis, p. 306.
5. F. W. Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States: A Series of Essays, Putnam and Sons, New York and London 1892, pp. 172–3, 174 ff, 320.
6. Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism, pp. 37–8.
7. Sibylle H. Lehmann, ‘The German Elections in the 1870s: Why Germany Turned from Liberalism to Protectionism’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 70, no. 1, March 2010, p. 149.
8. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890– 1902, p. 35.
9. Cornelius Torp, ‘The “Coalition of Rye and Iron” under the Pressure of Globalization: A Reinterpretation of Germany’s Political Economy before 1914’, Central European History, vol. 43, no. 3, 2010, p. 411.
10. Barkin, The Controversy over German Industrialization, 1890–1902, pp. 52–6.
11. Winkler, Germany: The Long Road West, 1789–1933, pp. 240–41.
12. Torp, ‘The “Coalition of Rye and Iron” under the Pressure of Globalization’, p. 412.
13. Berman, ‘Modernization in Historical Perspective’, pp. 441–2.
14. Trentmann, Free Trade Nation, pp. 3–6, 15ff.
15. Ibid, Plate IV, ‘The Hungry Forties’ by Robert Morley, and Plate VIII.
16. Green, The Crisis of Conservatism, p. 244.
17. Cited in ibid, p. 246, from Mr. Chamberlain’s Speeches, vol. 2, p. 206: http://archive.org/stream/mrchamberlainssp02chamuoft#page/206/mode/2up
18. Richard G. Robbins, Famine in Russia, 1891–1892, Columbia University Press 1975, p. 6; Anatoli Vichnevski, La faucille et le rouble. La modernisation conservatrice en URSS, Gallimard, Paris 2000, p. 53; Lyashchenko, History of the National Economy of Russia, p. 561.
19. V. L. Stepanov, ‘Ivan Alekseevich Vyshnegradskii’, Russian Studies in History, Fall 1996, no. 2, vol. 35, p. 81.
20. Robbins, Famine in Russia, 1891–1892, p. 189.
21. Ibid, pp. 58–60; Stepanov, ‘Ivan Alekseevich Vyshnegradskii’, p. 97.
22. J. Y. Simms, ‘The Economic Impact of the Russian Famine of 1891–92’, Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 60, no. 1, January 1982, p. 69.
23. Cormac Ó Gráda, Famine: A Short History, Princeton University Press 2009, p. 236.
24. Simms, ‘The Economic Impact of the Russian Famine of 1891–92’, pp. 70–73.
25. Sen, Poverty and Famines, see esp. Chapter 4.
26. Milyoukov, Russia and its Crisis, p. 465.
27. Vichnevski, La faucille et le rouble, pp. 67–8.
28. Witte, The Memoirs of Count Witte, pp. 62, 71, 74.
29. Von Laue, ‘A Secret Memorandum of Sergei Witte’, pp. 98–9.
30. Jordi Nadal, ‘Un siglo de industrialización en España, 1833–1930’, in Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz (ed.), La modernización económica de España, 1830–1930, Alianza Editorial, Madrid 1985, p. 93.
31. John Michael Montias, ‘Notes on the Romanian Debate on Sheltered Industrialization: 1860–1906’, in Kenneth Jowitt (ed.), Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940: A Debate on Development in a European Nation, University of California Press 1978, p. 53.
32. The debate is ably summarized by Silvia Marton in La construction politique de la nation. La nation dans les débats du Parlement de la Roumanie (1866–1871), Institute European, Bucharest 2009, pp. 181–4.
33. Hitchins, Rumania, pp. 188–7.
34. Ibid, pp. 160– 61.
35. Ibid, pp. 83–5.
36. Montias, ‘Notes on the Romanian Debate on Sheltered Industrialization: 1860–1906’, pp. 60–61.
37. Ibid, p. 66.
38. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World, p. 128.
39. Durandin, Histoire des roumains, pp. 183–4.
40. Joseph L. Love. ‘Resisting Liberalism: Theorizing Backwardness and Development in Rumania before 1914’, in Michalēs Psalidopoulos and Maria Eugéna Mata (eds), Economic Thought and Policy in Less Developed Europe: The Nineteenth Century, Routledge, London 2002, pp. 108–9.
41. Herman Lebovics, The Alliance of Iron and Wheat in the Third French Republic, 1860–1914: Origins of the New Conservatism, Louisiana State University Press 1988, p. 55.
42. Olivier Jacquet and Gilles Laferté, ‘Le contrôle républicain du marché. Vignerons et négociants sous la Troisième République’, Annales, no. 5, September–October 2006, pp. 1,149–51.
43. Bertrand Joly, ‘Le parti royaliste et l’affaire Dreyfus (1898–1900)’, Revue Historique, no. 546, April–June 1983, pp. 311–64.
44. Léon Gambetta, ‘La politique et les affaires’, Revue politique et littéraire, 6 June 1868, in Discours et plaidoyers politiques, vol. 11, p. 136.
45. Gaillard, Jules Ferry, pp. 157–8, 162.
46. Ibid, p. 301.
47. Pomeranz and Topik, The World that Trade Created, p. 54.
48. Kenneth Morgan, ‘Mercantilism and the British Empire, 1688–1815’, in Winch and O’Brien (eds), The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, 1688–1914, p. 173.
49. Sarah Palmer, Politics, Shipping and the Repeal of the Navigation Laws, Manchester University Press 1990, p. 162.
50. David Todd, L’identité économique de la France: Libre-échange et protectionnisme, 1814–1851, Grasset, Paris 2008, p. 415.
51. John V. C. Nye, War, Wine, and Taxes: The Political Economy of Anglo-French Trade, 1689– 1900, Princeton University Press 2007, p. 3; Lucette Le Van-Lemesle, Le Juste ou le Riche. L’enseignement de l’économie politique, 1815–1950, Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière de la France, Paris 2004, p. 237; see also Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History, Harvester, New York and London 1993, pp. 22–3.
52. Jean-Charles Asselain, ‘Les résurgences du protectionnisme français’, Le débat, no. 76, September–October 1993, pp. 148–66.
53. Michael S. Smith, Tariff Reform in France, 1860–1900, Cornell University Press 1980, p. 196.
54
. Jules Méline, Le Retour à la terre et la surproduction industrielle, Hachette, Paris 1905, pp. 201, 206, 310.
55. Lévêque, Histoire des forces politiques en France, 1880–1940, p. 24.
56. Girault, ‘Place et rôle des échanges extérieurs’, pp. 209–10.
57. Ibid, pp. 223–4.
58. Jean Jaurès, Les plus beaux discours, Librio, Paris 2014, p. 116.
59. Eugene Genovese, The Southern Tradition: The Achievement and Limitations of an American Conservatism, Harvard University Press 1994, p. 8.
60. Keith Tribe, Strategies of Economic Order: German Economic Discourse, 1750–1950, Cambridge University Press 1995, Chapter 3 and esp. pp. 49–50.
61. Tribe, Strategies of Economic Order, pp. 49–51; see also Donald Winch, Riches and Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750–1834, Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 162.
62. C. Knick Harley, ‘International Competitiveness of the Antebellum American Cotton Textile Industry’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 52, no. 3, September 1992, p. 560.
63. Brownlee, Federal Taxation in America, p. 33.
64. Gould, Reform and Regulation, p. 33.
65. Bensel, The Political Economy of American Industrialization, 1877–1900, pp. 463–5.
66. Ibid, p. 457.
67. William McKinley, First Inaugural Address, 4 March 1897: http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/mckin1.asp
68. Albert Carreras, ‘What Can We Learn from Long-Term Spanish Economic Performance?’, in Pablo Martín-Aceña and James Simpson (eds), The Economic Development of Spain since 1870, Elgar, Aldershot 1995, pp. 40–43.
69. Cormac Ó Gráda, ‘British Agriculture, 1860–1914’, in Roderick Floud and Donald McCloskey (eds), The Economic History of Britain since 1700, 2nd edition, vol. 2: 1860–1939, Cambridge University Press 1994, p. 145; there is typo in this edition, ‘1816’ where it should have been ‘1860’.
70. The point, made by C. P. Kindleberger, is cited in Ó Gráda, ‘British Agriculture, 1860–1914’, p. 146.
71. Peter Cain, ‘Political Economy in Edwardian England: The Tariff-Reform Controversy’, in Alan O’Day (ed.) The Edwardian Age: Conflict and Stability, 1900–1914, Macmillan, London 1979, p. 36.
72. Merger, Un siècle d’histoire industrielle en Italie, 1880–1998, pp. 22–4.
73. Duggan, Francesco Crispi, pp. 518–23; Merger, Un siècle d’histoire industrielle en Italie, 1880–1998, pp. 31–2.
74. Stefano Fenoaltea, ‘Manchester, Manchesteriano … Dekwakoncoz?’, in Cafagna and Crepax (eds), Atti di intelligenza e sviluppo economico, pp. 493–9.
75. Friedrich Katz, ‘Mexico: Restored Republic and Porfiriato, 1867–1910’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. V, pp. 29–31.
76. Bairoch, Victoires et déboires, vol. II, pp. 308–9.
77. Ibid, p. 310.
78. Ibid, p. 311.
79. Darwin, The Empire Project, p. 277.
80. Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914, Allen Lane, London 2012, p. xxv.
81. Reading the Twentieth Century: Documents in American History, ed. Donald W. Whisenhunt, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD 2009, p. 21.
Conclusion: Still Triumphant? Still Anxious?
1. Joan Robinson, Economic Heresies: Some Old-fashioned Questions in Economic Theory, Macmillan, London and Basingstoke 1972, p. 143.
2. Friedrich Hayek, The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism, University of Chicago Press 2011, p. 6.
3. Marx, Capital, vol. 3, p. 241.
4. Ibid, vol. 1, p. 595.
5. John Maynard Keynes, ‘National Self-Sufficiency’, originally in the New Statesman (8 July 1933), now in Activities 1931–1939, vol. XXI of The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes, Macmillan and Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 239.
6. See Nick Tabor’s clever essay on cribs from Yeats’ poem, ‘No Slouch’, The Paris Review, 7 April 2015.
7. Joan Didion, Slouching towards Bethlehem, Burning Man Books, Seattle 2009, p. 5.
8. Max Nordau, Degeneration, University of Nebraska Press 1968, pp. 4–5.
9. Peter Temin, ‘Globalization’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, vol. 15, no. 4, 1999, p. 85.
10. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, Basic Books, London 1996, p. xxi (Foreword 1978, the book was originally published in 1976).
11. A thorough discussion of modern ‘technocratic’ thinkers can be found in Carlo Fumian, ‘Per una storia della tecnocrazia. Utopie meccaniche e ingegneria sociale tra Otto e Novecento’, Rivista storica italiana, vol. 124, no. 3, December 2012, pp. 908–59.
12. Murray N. Rothbard, ‘A Future of Peace and Capitalism’, in James H. Weaver (ed.), Modern Political Economy: Radical and Orthodox Views on Crucial Issues, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA 1973, p. 423.
13. Caroline Humphrey, ‘Creating a Culture of Disillusionment: Consumption in Moscow, a Chronicle of Changing Times’, in Daniel Miller (ed.), Worlds Apart: Modernity through the Prism of the Local, Routledge, New York and London 1995, pp. 61–2.
14. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, p. 35; Marx had used the expression in 1859; see A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy , Progress Publishers, Moscow 1970, p. 3.
15. http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/btglobalizationtradera/644.php?nid=&id=&pnt=644 and http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/
16. Pope Francis I, ‘Address of His Holiness Pope Francis to Representatives of the Confederation of Italian Cooperatives’, 28 February 2015: https://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/february/documents/papa-francesco_20150228_confcooperative.html
17. Margaret Thatcher, ‘Speech to General Assembly of the Church of Scotland’, 21 May 1988: http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/107246
18. Tocqueville, The Ancien Régime and the French Revolution, p. 11.
19. Trade union data are from the OECD. For technical issues on trade union statistics see Susan Hayter and Valentina Stoevska, ‘Social Dialogue Indicators: International Statistical Inquiry 2008–09. Technical Brief’, ILO November 2011: http://laborsta.ilo.org/applv8/data/TUM/TUD%20and%20CBC%20Technical%20Brief.pdf
20. See Chris Wrigley (ed.), British Trade Unions, 1945–1995, Manchester University Press 1997, pp. 161–80, for details of the legislation.
21. Paul Smith, ‘Labour under the Law’, Industrial Relations Journal, vol. 46, nos 5–6, November 2015, p. 358; see also Paul Smith, ‘New Labour and the Commonsense of Neoliberalism: Trade Unionism, Collective bargaining, and Workers’ Rights’, Industrial Relations Journal, vol. 40, no. 4.
22. Colin Crouch, ‘A Third Way in Industrial Relations?’, in Stuart White (ed.), New Labour: The Progressive Future? Palgrave, London 2001, p. 104.
23. The Conservative and Unionist Party Manifesto 2017, Forward Together: Our Plan for a Stronger Britain and a Prosperous Future, p. 9.
24. ETUI: http://www.worker-participation.eu/National-Industrial-Relations/Countries/Sweden/Trade-Unions
25. On how Labour Zionism made socialism subordinate to nationalism see Zeev Sternhell, Aux origines d’Israël. Entre nationalisme et socialisme, Gallimard, Paris 2004, esp. Chapter 3.
26. William J. Clinton, Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union, 23 January 1996: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=53091
27. Gordon Brown, Mansion House Speech, 22 June 2006: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2006/jun/22/politics.economicpolicy
28. William J. Baumol, Robert E. Litan, and Carl J. Schramm, Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism, and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity, Yale University Press 2007, pp. 74–5.
29. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/07/nicaragua-represion-estatal-ha-llegado-a-niveles-deplorables/
30. See CNN: http://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/02/world/americas/mexico-drug-war-fast-facts/index.html; www.theguardian.com/world/2018/feb/10/mexico-drug-cartels-soldiers-military, and BBC Report: https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p
06cc1mm, and CNN: https://edition.cnn.com/2018/06/27/americas/mexico-political-deaths-election-season-trnd/index.html
31. Joseph E. Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents, Norton, New York 2002, p. 13.
32. Ibid, p. 5.
33. Paul Krugman, ‘In Praise of Cheap Labor’, Slate Magazine, 21 March 1997, and ‘Safer Sweatshops’, The New York Times, 8 July 2013.
34. David Riesman, ‘The Nylon War’, in David Riesman, Abundance for What? and Other Essays, Chatto and Windus, New York 1964, p. 69; the C-54 Skymaster was a transport aircraft used by the US military.
35. Greg Castillo, ‘Domesticating the Cold War: Household Consumption as Propaganda in Marshall Plan Germany’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 40, no. 2, 2005, pp. 261–2, 282.
36. Last but not least is Gideon Rachman’s Easternisation: War and Peace in the Asian Century, Bodley Head, London 2016.
37. Justin R. Pierce and Peter K. Schott, ‘The Surprisingly Swift Decline of US Manufacturing Employment’, American Economic Review, vol. 106, no. 7, July 2016, p. 1,632.
38. CIA, World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2079rank.htmlUS
39. Shanghai Ranking Consultancy: http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2016.html
40. See data for 2015 from the International Institute of Strategic Studies: The Military Balance: https://www.iiss.org//media//images/publications/the%20military%20balance/milbal2016/mb%202016%20top%2015%20defence%20budgets%202015.jpg?la=en
41. Richard Walker and Daniel Buck, ‘The Chinese Road: Cities in the Transition to Capitalism’, New Left Review, no. 46, July–August 2007, pp. 50–51; Jing Daily, 16 February 2016, quoting a report by the Shanghai-based luxury consultancy Fortune Character.
42. Source: UNCTAD, cited in Chris Rhodes, ‘Manufacturing: International Comparisons’, House of Commons Briefing Paper no. 05809, 5 January 2018, Table 5.
43. Robert Rowthorn and Ramana Ramaswamy, ‘Deindustrialization – Its Causes and Implications’, Economic Issues no. 10, IMF, Washington, DC 1997; see also their ‘Growth, Trade, and Deindustrialization’, IMF Staff Papers, vol. 46, no. 1, March 1999, pp. 18–41. OECD figures cited by Charles Feinstein are different: the American peak was in 1966 and not in 1965 with 36 per cent and not 28 per cent, see Charles Feinstein, ‘Structural Change in the Developed Countries during the Twentieth Century’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, vol. 15, no. 4, 1999, p. 39.
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