Williamson was appointed manager of Assam, and he began to make a careful study of tea plants and the successes and failures of various tea gardens. He determined that the problem was not with the local Assam bushes but with the English insistence on planting China bushes there. In experimental gardens where Assam bushes had been carefully pruned and cultivated, tea had successfully habituated. Williamson lobbied to remove all China bushes from the tea gardens and replace them with cultivated Assam bushes. From that point on the English tea industry in Assam flourished.
It was not until the English began to hybridize these varieties that they achieved tea bushes that possessed the best virtues of each bush, and the modern “Assam bush” was successfully propagated. Despite their trials and errors, the English had accomplished their goal of controlling tea imports to England in fewer than fifty years. By 1900 India was supplying 154 million pounds of tea to England. Purchases of Chinese tea, which had once constituted 90 percent of all tea purchased, dwindled to a mere 5 percent a year. The Chinese tea industry would falter under this loss, and would not recover from this blow until the end of the twentieth century.
With success under their belt in India, the English were able to use their tea knowledge to propagate tea on their island colony of Ceylon in 1875. This island paradise, the jewel in the English Crown, was well known for extensive coffee farms that had been established nearly a hundred years before. A devastating coffee blight hit the Ceylon coffee farms in 1869, however, and the coffee industry, once booming and highly profitable, was in ruins by 1878. Systematically, the English changed the coffee farms into tea gardens, where the tea bushes luxuriated in Ceylon’s rich soil and tropical climate.
The Modern Age and Changes in the World of Tea
In 1878 the success of the English in India led the Dutch to import Assam tea bush cuttings onto the island of Java. After close to forty-five years of only mediocre luck cultivating tea bushes brought from China and Japan, this was the final attempt to establish a thriving tea industry on this Indonesian island. A decade earlier the government of Java had privatized the tea industry, making way for ambitious tea planters to expand facilities, create better roads, and improve the conditions of the existing tea gardens. The Assam bush acclimated easily to the island’s weather, and this proved to be the key that opened the door to success.
The English and the Dutch had managed to crumble China’s once tightly held dominance in the tea world. The taste preferences of western Europeans for strong, dark tea succeeded in nearly pushing the once beloved Chinese teas completely from their tea tables—Chinese tea imports fell from 100 percent to just under 10 percent, lashing a devastating blow to the Chinese tea industry. To make matters worse for the Chinese, the Russian Revolution in 1917 brought Russia’s trading relations with China to a halt.
With the dawn of the modern age came other changes in the world of tea. In the early 1900s the camel-driven tea caravans to Mongolia and Siberia ended when the Trans-Siberian Railway was completed. Now this once impossibly long journey could be completed in just seven weeks. And the heavenly “tribute teas,” once held in reserve for use by only the celestial Chinese emperors, became classified as “famous teas” and are now for sale to tea connoisseurs worldwide. The bygone era of adventure, mystery, and colorful intrigue once associated with tea evolved into a mature and robust industry through the continued efforts of dedicated tea growers rooted in a proud tradition of producing high-quality tea.
Africa has also become a world player in tea production. The continent’s major tea gardens were started just before and after the turn into the twentieth century in the Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonies of East Africa and in the eastern portion of South Africa. Success with experimental tea gardens in Malawi, which were begun in the mid-1880s, led to the pursuit of tea cultivation in other African colonies. In 1903 tea seeds from Assam tea bushes were first planted in Kenya, then in Tanzania in the mid-1930s. The African tea industry was modeled after the flourishing tea industries of India and Ceylon, so without the need for experimentation or the foibles of misjudgments, the gardens developed quickly.
Today—in addition to Africa, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, and Sri Lanka—tea production has spread to more than forty-five countries in the Middle East, South America, the South Pacific, and Southeast Asia. Interest in tea culture and the rediscovery of tea’s appealing nature has a new generation of tea drinkers embracing this ancient beverage in record numbers. Across America and Europe, cafés, restaurants, and tea salons offer selections of teas to suit every palate. Classic Asian and English tea service is more popular than ever in upscale hotels and specialty tea salons. The history of the world’s oldest beverage continues to be made every day.
EARLY TEA PLANT USAGE PREDATES WRITTEN HISTORY, and Chinese emperors had a tradition of “adjusting” the historical record to take credit for revered aspects of culture (such as tea cultivation as well as brewing and drinking rituals), so the exact origins of the plant that today we know as Camellia sinensis will be forever unknown. Experts agree that the two most probable sites, however, are the portion of the Tibetan Plateau in northwestern China that includes the upper reaches of Yunnan Province eastward to Mengding Mountain in northwestern Sichuan Province, and the Brahmaputra valley at the point where India, Myanmar, and Tibet meet. Peoples indigenous to these areas have been consuming the leaves of this plant in various forms for centuries, from the Burmese letpet (pickled tea salad) to Tibet’s milk tea (a hot beverage brewed from caked tea and then churned with barley meal, salt, and goat or yak butter).
Although no documentation exists for the early peoples of the inner reaches of the Brahmaputra valley, where it rises from the Assam valley to meet the Himalaya, there is evidence that ancient people cultivated tea gardens there that then became overgrown and not reclaimed until long after the British had “discovered” what they assumed were wild indigenous tea plants. Modern-day tea growers and latter-day explorers in the area have encountered roads and well-planned “gardens,” indicating that long ago tea was an important crop in the region. Like the area surrounding Angkor, in Cambodia, much of the current access is possible only because of this historical development. This is one of the few remaining untamed places on earth, and not many travelers have ventured into the region. It is ruled by the tribal warlords of the indigenous ethnic minorities, so it is extremely unstable politically. But tea bushes thrive there, growing quickly into trees in this, one of the wettest places on earth.
Jade Mountain (Yunnan Province, China).
Chinese historians trace the origins of Thea sinensis to the valleys and foothills of the lower Tibetan high plateau in northwestern Yunnan Province. This region is close both geographically and topographically to the Brahmaputra valley. Flying from Chengdu to Lhasa on China Airlines in late February 2004, we looked out over this incredible part of the world with appropriate awe.
It is certainly apt that this region would also be the origin of the former Tea Horse Route that brought tea from the lush Sichuan mountains to be traded for the wild horses of the upper plateaus. We believe that the “original” tea grew throughout this area, including Myanmar and south along the Mekong River to the Chinese border with Laos. Selecting one particular spot as the origin is not only historically impossible but also expressively unnecessary. Although governments have divided this region in various ways over time, the story of tea throughout this area’s history has been a coalescing factor.
Camellia sinensis, the evergreen plant that we call the tea bush, was originally named Thea sinensis. In May 1753, in volume 1 of his Species Plantarum (the work considered to be the start of modern systematic botany), the Swedish botanist Linnaeus assigned the tea plant to the family (or genus) Thea. Unfortunately, in August of the same year he also named the plant as belonging to the family Camellia, in volume 2 of the same work. What was he thinking?
For years botanists have argued as to whether these two genera are identical, and if not, to which
does the tea plant belong. The consensus seems to be that they are similar, though not identical, suggesting that Thea be retained as a separate genus. This confusion is exacerbated by the fact that there are many subvarieties of the tea plant (with different habits) that grow in different places. In 1905, after enduring several name changes (such as the beautiful Thea borea and Thea viridis) and the addition of many subvariety monikers, the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature determined that the plant would be known as a member of the family Camellia. Therefore, we use the term Camellia throughout this book.
Growing Habit and Climate Preferences
Two primary genera of Camellia sinensis exist, each having been found in one of these two historical locations. Which was known first is unclear, as early explorers familiar with one variety did not recognize the other in the wild until long after Thea sinensis had naturally hybridized itself into many sub-divisions. This lack of early identification was due to their extremely different growing habits.
Today, the tea plant is a general term for the several genera of Camellia sinensis. These include Camellia sinensis var. sinensis (China bush), Camellia sinensis var. assamica (Assam bush), and Camellia sinensis var. cambodi (Java bush), also known as Camellia assamica subsp. lasiocaly. Each of these genera has many subdivisions. All together, there are more than a thousand subvarieties of the tea bush Camellia sinensis!
CAMELLIA SINENSIS VAR. SINENSIS (CHINA BUSH)
This tea plant thrives on cool mountainsides with a southern exposure at elevations of 6,500 to 9,800 feet (2,000 to 3,000 meters). Its short growing season generates a small yield of a tender, fine leaf that often has less tannin content than the leaf of its cousin, the Assam bush. Equally evergreen, it may suffer seasonal die-off due to extreme temperature variations or the reduction of oxygen and earth nutrients in its environment, but it tolerates frost 6 inches (15 centimeters) into the ground. China bush grows as a shrub, 3 to 10 feet high (1 to 3 meters), with straight, nearly vertical branches that rise from the base of the plant like a fountain.
Allowed to grow free, it will develop a domed shape, so it is often pruned flat to create a table from which the new growth is plucked. The mature leaves are alternate, deeply green, leathery, and smooth, with serrated margins. Because of the seasonality of the climate, China bush has distinct picking times, with no more than four to five plucks a year. The new growth consists of erect, light green elliptical blades that present the classic profile of two leaves and a bud.
Nature’s most perfect leaf configuration.
China bush is grown throughout China, Japan, Taiwan, and some locales in Southeast Asia, as well as the Himalaya (most notably the half-dozen traditional gardens of Darjeeling). This genus, combined with hand-plucking and careful manufacture, is celebrated primarily for the finer, most highly regarded quality leaf for green tea. It is also the plant of choice for producing all the classes of tea in China, particularly the softer-style oolongs of Fujian, the smooth black teas of Yunnan Province, and the winey, brisk, and stylish Keemun tea of Anhui Province in central China.
Ready to be plucked, these tea “tables” in the well-planted Satrupa Garden show the larger leaf and verdant growth of Assam bush (Assam, India). Photo courtesy of Saunam Bhattacharjee.
CAMELLIA SINENSIS VAR. ASSAMICA (ASSAM BUSH)
This tea plant prospers in junglelike conditions. It thrives in rich, loamy soil that is preferably light, well drained, and slightly acidic. High humidity, rainfall of 100 inches (254 centimeters) a year, and an average temperature of 85°F (29°C) guarantee luxuriant growth. When the topography allows for a junglelike environment to ascend a mountain and tea grows there, above 6,500 feet (2,000 meters), conditions can be as ideal as they are in the flat, lower-altitude Assam valley.
Assam bush more closely resembles a small tree, potentially attaining a height of 35 to 50 feet (10 to 15 meters). Supported by a distinct trunk with a ramifying branch system, its leaves are large and glossy with distinct marginal veining. Its leaf is broadly elliptical, 4 to 8 inches long (10 to 20 centimeters) and 1½ to 3 inches wide (4 to 8 centimeters), and resembles the leaf of an orange tree or holly more than the feathery profile of the smaller leaf of its cousin, the China bush. In the subtropical and tropical conditions it prefers, Assam bush can often be picked every ten days, year-round, although for this volume of production, it needs to be fed heavily. Assam bush is the variety preferred for the high-quality black tea production of northeastern India, Sri Lanka, and most of Africa. Assam bush has a natural tendency to grow into a taller, less-rounded plant that is pruned and plucked differently than China bush is.
THE FUKUJUEN TEA RESEARCH CENTER
At the Fukujuen Research Center in Kyoto, we were given a walking tour of a collection of tea bushes planted outside of the facility by Dr. Kiyoshi Hayakawa. The research center has many types of Japanese cultivars growing in a tidy tea garden, as well as plants from China, India, and Sri Lanka. It was a treat to see such a veritable international gathering of the plants. According to Dr. Hayakawa, Japan has successfully cloned close to seventy-five cultivars of Camellia sinensis, including Kanayamidori, Okumidori, Sayamakaori, Yabukita, and Yutakamidori. But growers tend to favor the Yabukita variety, which accounts for approximately 80 percent of all the tea cultivars planted. Just as the Chinese are experimenting with the oolong varietal Tieguanyin for manufacture into black tea, the Japanese are cloning Tieguanyin into varietals for use as a new flavor profile in green tea or for future Japanese oolong production.
CAMELLIA SINENSIS VAR. CAMBODI (JAVA BUSH)
This is the tea plant of choice for growing areas that are tropical, rugged, and often mountainous. It is a hearty variety, but its yield is less dependable than that of the Assam bush. Its history is one of intrigue and stealth, having been snuck onto the Indonesian archipelago during the days of Dutch control, in an effort to expand the quantity of tea available to Dutch traders.
The Java bush is arguably a close relative of the Assam bush, sharing many similarities; however, biologists have given it subvariety status because of its unique characteristics of habit and flowering. It is the variety on which many hybrids are based, and it provides many of the “mother trees” for the vegetative propagation of modern-day cultivars. Java bush is found in the regions of Southeast Asia, especially Indonesia, where it is used for the higher volume–lower quality tea production needed for local consumption. The Java bush, being a more vigorous but inconsistently productive plant, has a range that is limited to the searing temperatures and humid conditions of the more tropical regions of tea cultivation.
Setting the “Table”
Density of planting is a critical factor, ranging from the traditionally wild-grown Chinese plantings (where bushes develop at random on mountain slopes, often with considerable shade canopy but rarely any crowding), to highly cultivated plantings in full sun in Sri Lanka, Malawi, and India (where there can be three thousand to four thousand bushes per acre), and Japan (where tea bushes are planted in surveyed, well-organized, and meticulously planned gardens).
Tea bushes produce well and are most conducive to being plucked when they are pruned to a manageable height. This varies by growing region. Careful pruning of young Camellia sinensis var. sinensis plants encourages the formation of a flat top surface of the bush, known as the “plucking table.” From this table new growth emerges and is plucked for harvest, and old wood is removed during the annual pruning to maintain shape and airiness. This plucking table is at a maximum height of 3 feet (1 meter), and the bush is shaped to have a diameter of 3 to 4 feet (1 to 1.25 meters). Together these factors stimulate the bush to produce bountiful tender new leaf rather than a woody stem that would transform it into a tree. In Japan this same variety of tea bush is trimmed to a taller height and given a more sculpted, flowingly connected form. This maximizes yield and accommodates the shearing machinery that plucks the leaf. The pruning of Camellia sinensis var. assamica plants, however, gives shape to the larger, taller, sh
rublike bushes that are more apt to produce the larger leaf being plucked.
Defile not its purity,
For drinking it expunges dust and woe.
The taste of this thing is spiritual,
Taking it from the mountain where
naturally it grew, I planted it in
my own garden.
The bushes, to my delight, flourished,
And I could invite my wonderful friends.
—WEI YINGWU, “THE JOY OF GROWING TEA IN MY GARDEN,” SONG DYNASTY
Whichever variety is planted, the goal is to harvest an abundance of fresh leaf appropriate to the style of tea for which the particular region is famous. Although all types of tea can be made anywhere, with leaf plucked from any of the different varieties of bush, it is well proven that certain varieties of the tea plant, grown in a particular location, will thrive and best produce leaf that has the “correct” flavor profile for that place.
The Terroir of Tea
So how can it be that thirty-nine countries, producing the six classes of tea with thousands of minor variations of leaf style and shape, all rely on fresh leaf from the same base plant? Black tea from the Tibetan plateau of northern Yunnan Province in southwestern China, made from China bush tea plants, bears resemblance to but is quite different than the black tea from the Darjeeling district of northern India that is also prepared from China bush tea plants. Why is this so?
The Story of Tea Page 5
