by Les Stroud
Crossing Water
NEVER UNDERESTIMATE THE POWER OF MOVING WATER. If you can get to your destination without crossing water, you’re better off.
You must find the right spot to cross, and it may not be where you first reach the water. Look for the shallowest or slowest-flowing section (sometimes the most frothy, white-water section is actually the easiest place to cross as that is where the water is shallow enough to expose rocks you can step on). Make sure that you know you can get up the opposite bank before you enter the water.
When crossing moving water such as a river or stream, you should always face the current and lean your body upstream against it. Never turn your back to the current and never lean downstream, or you run the risk of being swept away. Use a stick, branch, or other aid to help you maintain your balance. It only takes 6 inches (15 cm) of moving water to knock down a full-grown man.
If you have to swim in rapids, keep your hind end as high as possible to avoid injuring your spine. Use your feet to repel any rocks you hit, and keep your feet high so they don’t snag in a rock crevice, flip you over, and turn you face down. Paddle backward with your arms to reach a safe exit point.
Slide your feet along the bottom rather than taking large strides, which would leave you on one leg for much of the crossing time. If you’re wearing a backpack, undo the hip strap and loosen the shoulder straps so that you can slip it off if you get knocked over. Don’t let go of it if you can help it; but you also don’t want it to take you under. Never attempt water crossings in bare feet. It’s a rough compromise to make, especially if your boots or shoes are dry, but wet shoes are less debilitating than a twisted or broken ankle or severely gashed foot.
If you’re crossing in a group, the strongest person should face the current with the rest in line behind, each holding the person in front by the waist. The stronger members of the group break the force of the river for the weaker ones. You can also cross as a group with each member in line locking arms. The strongest person is always in front, with the weakest in the middle. Yet another option is to secure a rope to objects on either bank; people can work their way across while holding the rope from the downstream side.
If you do slip and fall and find yourself being swept away, make sure you’re floating on your back with your feet facing downstream. Your toes should be pointing out of the water (or as close to the surface as possible), and your rear end should be lifted as high out of the water as you can manage, to prevent your cracking your tailbone.
There are thousands of horror stories of travelers who fell out of their boats and subsequently drowned because they let their feet dangle under the surface and catch on trees or rocks or other debris in the water. Once this happens, the force of the flow throws you face first, and holds you under until you drown. Keeping your feet in front of you prevents this from happening and allows you to push yourself away from rocks and other obstacles as you float downstream.
There may be times when you need to cross frozen water. Although this can be an easy way to shorten your journey, it’s not without risk. Falling into water in the middle of winter can be deadly. A pair of ice picks bought at any sports store and a flotation survival suit could save your life.
Expect weak ice in the following places:
where objects protrude through the ice
in straight sections in rivers
where snow banks extend over the ice
at a confluence of water courses
wherever you see sinkholes
where you see darker sections under the snow
Basic Survival Navigation
IF YOU VENTURE INTO THE WILD without basic navigation skills such as how to use a compass, you put yourself at unnecessary risk. The essentials of navigation are fairly straightforward and easy to master, and can be learned by anybody. As you learn how to paddle a canoe, build a campfire, or set up a tent, also learn to read a map and use a compass. I highly recommend that you get some hands-on experience well before venturing out on your own. Many colleges offer night courses on the subject.
The Map
A topographical map improves your chances of survival many times over, but only if you know how to use it and always protect it from damage.
Before setting off, check the date of your map. Depending on its age, you may find that some features have changed, which could drastically throw off your perception of where you are. I have seen entire lakes disappear (and new ones appear) on old maps.
Make sure that you can interpret the map’s symbols and identify major terrain features.
To correctly use any map, you first need to orient it. In simplest terms, a map is oriented when it is placed flat on a horizontal surface, and its north and south markings correspond with north and south on your compass (or at least with your understanding of where north, south, east, and west lie).
If you’re not sure where north is, you can still orient the map using terrain association. To do this, you must know your approximate location on the map. Seek out the major terrain features in your vicinity (such as hilltops, valleys, and ridges), and identify them on the map. This is more difficult in “close” places such as the jungle and the forest, so you may need to wait until you reach something more easily identified. Some topographic maps also mark different types of vegetation, which may help you to determine your location.
Knowing your map-based route is noted as a major priority in “Trip Planning and Preparation,” the first chapter of this book. If you are on a charter trip, sit down with your guide on the first day to familiarize yourself with the map.
The Compass
The compass course I took at my local college always ended with an orienteering race. It became tradition that those of us who also took survival courses were under big-time peer pressure to win. Fortunately for me, I avoided much teasing by winning the year I took the course. My time, however, was not as good as my survival buddy Doug Getgood’s had been a few years earlier, so I felt it appropriate that he join me in writing this, and the next, section.
In a world where the techno-savvy are all too used to having electronic gadgets flash and beep at them, the simple compass sometimes seems almost boring. After all, it just sits there, pointing north. Yet, simple though it may be, the compass is the one instrument above all others that will help you find your way out of the wilderness. Basic compass understanding is vital to your survival.
If you can comfortably and effectively use a compass, you can stand in the middle of nowhere, pick a destination off in the distance and be confident that no matter how many obstacles lie in your path, you will get there.
Parts of a Compass
To use a compass, you first have to understand its various parts. The compass shown below is an orienteering compass, a very practical one when used with a topographic map.
The compass has three basic parts:
Base plate: Shows the direction-of-travel arrow, parallel orienteering lines that are used in conjunction with a map, and the index mark.
Parts of a compass.
Rotating compass housing: Rotates in either direction. Its border is inscribed with numbers and markings. It begins with N for north and ends where it began, 360 degrees later. On the bottom of the compass housing is the red orienteering arrow, as well as parallel orienteering lines.
Magnetic needle: Balanced inside the compass housing, the magnetic needle is usually red and always points to magnetic north (as long as the compass is held flat and is not placed near certain types of metal).
Taking a Bearing Without a Map
In simple terms, a bearing (one of the 360 points on a compass) is the direction you want to travel in relation to magnetic north. The idea behind taking a bearing is that it allows you to travel in a chosen direction using landmarks as navigational aids. Hillsides, big rocks, unique-looking trees, ponds, and lakes can all be used for this purpose. See the picture captions and other steps that follow for instructions on taking a bearing.
1. Face the di
rection you want to go. Level the compass to allow the magnetic needle to swing freely, and point the direction-of-travel arrow in the direction that you have chosen.
2. Now spin the compass housing until the orienteering arrow is directly underneath the magnetic needle. The bearing is shown at the index mark (e.g., 148°). Choose a topographical landmark in that direction that you can easily differentiate from others around it.
3. Keeping your compass at the chosen setting, take your eyes away from the compass and make your way toward the object. Once you reach the object, find another landmark in your path in the same direction. This is done by doing the “compass shuffle.” As before, put the compass flat in your hand. Make sure the bearing still reads 148° (or whichever bearing you’ve chosen) and shuffle your body until the red end of the magnetic needle is directly over top of the red portion of the orienteering arrow. The direction-of-travel arrow will point to where you want to go.
4. Always place the back end of the compass near or against your stomach with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing ahead. This way both you and the compass will always be facing the same direction. Don’t simply stare at your compass and walk, as you could easily sway to one side and not actually head in a straight line. If you choose a landmark in the right direction, you can put the compass down and make your way to that landmark, walking around obstacles en route. Adventure racers use this method very effectively, noting a landmark in the distance and running between landmarks at top speed.
To reverse your steps you can do one of two things:
1. Align the white (south) end of the magnetic needle with the red portion of the orienteering arrow and follow the direction-of-travel arrow back, OR
2. Add 180 degrees (half of the 360 degrees of a circle) to your original 148-degree setting (180 + 148 = 328) and travel back to where you started. Ensure in this case that all red arrows are aligned.
The Map and Compass
THE BEST MAP TO USE in conjunction with an orienteering compass is a topographic map. The following is a basic introduction to working with a map and compass. As I explain above, it’s wise to further your studies in the field of orienteering with a local educator.
The Topographic Map
A topographic map is a scaled replica of an outdoor location. The average topographic map has a scale of 1:50,000, where 1 inch equals 50,000 inches. It shows contour lines, grid lines, man-made objects, and natural features such as lakes, swamps, and rivers.
The contour lines are to help you to decipher various terrain features such as peaks and valleys, cliffs and slopes. Grid lines run both north and south (up and down, called grid north) as well as east and west (left and right). On a 1:50,000 scaled map, the grid lines represent one square mile. The north/south lines run almost the same direction as true north, but not necessarily the same direction as magnetic north. The difference between the map’s grid north and magnetic north is called the angle of declination.
A topographic map gives you geographic detail about the landscape you’ll encounter.
Taking a Bearing with a Map
Using a pencil, mark on your map (a) the location from which you want to take a bearing and (b) your chosen destination Then draw a straight line connecting the two. Place the side of the compass along this line with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing in the direction that you want to proceed. Rotate the compass housing so that one of the orienteering lines runs exactly parallel to or completely covers one of the north/south grid lines on the map.
To achieve the correct reading, it is imperative that the orienteering arrow end points toward the top of the map. The correct bearing is shown at the index mark.
Adjusting for Declination
Now that you have taken the bearing, an adjustment must be made to correct for declination. Using the diagram on the side of the map, find the degrees of difference between the map’s grid north and the compass’s magnetic north. Notice that the map below shows magnetic north, true north (T.N.), and grid north. (For the purpose of map-and-compass work, T.N. should be ignored.) The degree of declination is also shown. Because the bearing was established using the map’s grid line, the grid north marking on the diagram dictates which direction the compass housing should be rotated. If the diagram shows magnetic north toward the left of grid north, turn the compass housing to the left (counter-clockwise). If the diagram shows magnetic north toward the right of grid north, turn the compass housing to the right (clockwise). In either case you will rotate the compass housing the number of degrees indicated on the map.
Keep in mind that magnetic north changes slightly each year. The map will indicate how far it moves each year and how you can adjust for the difference. The compass should now be adjusted for declination, and will give you a true indication of what direction to travel.
A topographical map showing declination.
Adjusting for Declination from Field to Map
If you want to convert a bearing taken in the field to a map, use the magnetic needle as your starting point. Using the topographical map’s diagram for declination as a reference, rotate the compass housing toward grid north.
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STROUD’S TIP
When transferring from map to field, rotate the compass housing toward magnetic north. When transferring from field to map, rotate the compass housing toward grid north.
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Making Improvised Compasses
ALTHOUGH IT MAY BE DAUNTING TO SEE YOUR COMPASS FLOAT down the river or plummet to the bottom of a crevasse, don’t panic. There are ways to determine north, south, east, and west from ordinary materials that you may be carrying or that you can find in your immediate surroundings. None of these methods is very accurate, but each will give you an idea of where the major directions lie.
Magnetized needle and paper in water method. A magnetized needle will always point north/south. See tip to learn how to magnetize a needle.
Shadow stick: The shadow stick method uses the sun to determine direction. Stand with the west mark to your left. North is in front of you, east to the right, and south behind. This method cannot be used effectively in regions above 60 degrees latitude.
Using a Shadow Stick to Determine Direction
1. Start by poking a stick or branch into the ground. Choose a level spot where you know a distinctive shadow will be cast. Mark the tip of the shadow; this mark will always be west.
2. Wait about 15 minutes, during which time the shadow tip will move. Mark the new position of the tip. Repeat.
3. Draw a straight line through the marks; this is an approximate east/west line.
Watch method: Although it can be off by as much as 24 degrees and doesn’t work everywhere on the planet, a watch can sometimes be used as a makeshift compass. If your watch is digital, draw a watch (with hands) on a circle of paper with the correct time on it and use the following method to determine your direction.
This method should be used during standard time; in daylight saving time, the north/south line is found between the hour hand and 1 o’clock. If it is before noon, use halfway to the right side of the hour hand; if it is after noon, use halfway to the left of the hour hand.
In the south temperate zone (the area between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle), point 12 o’clock toward the sun. Halfway between the 12 o’clock position and the hour hand will be a north line. During daylight saving time, the north line lies midway between the hour hand and 1 o’clock. Note that this method becomes less accurate the nearer you are to the equator.
If you are in the north temperate zone (the area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle), point the hour hand of your watch directly at the sun. Then draw an imaginary line halfway between the hour hand and 12 o’clock. This imaginary line points south.
Using Natural Features to Navigate
WEATHER CAN BE A VERY IMPORTANT TOOL when navigating through the wilderness, but remember: don’t ever rely on just one sign. Rather, use as many as you can in comb
ination to reduce the risk that you’ll make a mistake.
If your trip preparation and planning has told you the direction of the prevailing wind, you can use that knowledge to help guide you, since wind has pronounced effects on vegetation and land forms. The growth of certain trees, called flag trees, is largely affected by wind patterns. The branches of these trees (such as white pine) will not grow into the wind but rather in the same direction as the prevailing wind. Flag trees generally point either east or west, but this is subject to regional variation.
Moss tends to grow on the north side of trees because there’s less sunlight. But that doesn’t mean you won’t find moss on the south side of a tree or even all around the trunk. Again, it’s best to look for such signs in combination. The melt-off around boulders is usually on the south to southwest side.
In the northern temperate climate, many flowers will face either south or east to maximize their exposure to the sun. The barrel cactus in the Sonoran Desert does the same.
