26. From Mary Gibson, Prostitution and the Italian State 1860–1915
27. From Margherita Pelaja, Scandali: Sessualità e violenza nella Roma dell’Ottocento
28. Ibid.
29. Sir George Head, Rome: A Tour of Many Days (1849)
30. William Wetmore Story, Roba di Roma (1863)
31. Ibid.
32. Charles Dickens, Pictures from Italy (1846)
33. William Wetmore Story, Roba di Roma (1863)
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
38. Charles Dickens, Pictures from Italy (1846)
39. William Wetmore Story, Roba di Roma (1863)
40. Lady Morgan, Italy (1821)
41. William Wetmore Story: Roba di Roma (1863)
42. Sir George Head: Rome: A Tour of Many Days (1849)
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. William Wetmore Story, notes, in Henry James, William Wetmore Story and his friends (1903)
47. The Times, 9 May 1849
48. Margaret Fuller: These Sad but Glorious Days: Dispatches from Europe 1846–50, eds Larry J. Reynolds and Susan Belasco Smith (1991) dispatch 21 June 1849
49. From George Macaulay Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic (1907)
50. Margaret Fuller: These Sad but Glorious Days: Dispatches from Europe 1846–50, Ed Larry J Reynolds & Susan Belasco Smith, (1991) dispatch 10 July 1849
51. Ibid.
52. William Wetmore Story, Roba di Roma (1863)
53. Margaret Fuller: These Sad but Glorious Days: Dispatches from Europe 1846–50, eds Larry J. Reynolds and Susan Belasco Smith (1991) dispatch 15 November 1849
54. Odo Russell in Noel Blakiston, The Roman Question: Extracts from the Despatches of Odo Russell from Rome 1858–70 (1962) dispatch 12 July 1860
55. From Derek Beales, Garibaldi in England: The Politics of Italian Enthusiasm in eds. John A. Davis and Paul Ginsborg, Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of Denis Mack Smith (1991)
Chapter Seven
1. M. de Wyss, Rome Under the Terror (1945)
2. Denis Mack Smith, Italy and its Monarchy (1992)
3. M. de Wyss, Rome Under the Terror (1945)
4. From Borden W. Painter, Jr, Mussolini’s Rome: Rebuilding the Eternal City (2005)
5. Roland G. Andrew, Through Fascist Italy, An English Hiker’s Pilgrimage (1935)
6. From Emilio Gentile, In Italia ai Tempi di Mussolini: Viaggio in compagnia di osservatori stranieri (2014).
7. From Perry Willson, Women in Twentieth Century Italy (2009)
8. From Emilio Gentile, In Italia ai Tempi di Mussolini: Viaggio in compagnia di osservatori stranieri (2014)
9. Ibid.
10. From Paul Corner, The Fascist Party and Popular Opinion in Mussolini’s Italy (2012)
11. Ibid.
12. Claudio Fracassi, La Battaglia di Rome (2014)
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Robert Katz, Fatal Silence: The Pope, the Resistance and the German Occupation of Rome (2003)
18. Jane Scrivener / Mother Mary St Luke, Inside Rome with the Germans (1945)
19. Giacomo Debenedetti, October 16, 1943, trans. Estelle Gilson (2001)
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Jane Scrivener / Mother Mary St Luke, Inside Rome with the Germans (1945)
26. Ibid.
27. M. de Wyss, Rome Under the Terror (1945)
28. Jane Scrivener / Mother Mary St Luke, Inside Rome with the Germans (1945)
29. M. de Wyss, Rome Under the Terror (1945)
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Jane Scrivener / Mother Mary St Luke, Inside Rome with the Germans (1945)
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. M. de Wyss, Rome Under the Terror (1945)
36. Jane Scrivener / Mother Mary St Luke, Inside Rome with the Germans (1945)
37. Ibid.
38. M. de Wyss, Rome Under the Terror (1945)
39. Jane Scrivener / Mother Mary St Luke, Inside Rome with the Germans (1945)
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Olga Di Veroli interviewed by Alexander Stille, from Alexander Stille, Benevolence and Betrayal: Five Italian Jewish Families under Fascism (1991)
Afterword
1. La Repubblica, 21 February 2015
SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chapter One
I
The best evidence concerning Gallic warriors in Italy – and their nakedness – comes from a terracotta frieze found at Civitalba in Marche that dates from almost a century after the battle on the Allia, and which matches a written description of Gallic warriors at the battle of Telamon, fought some seventy years later. A full account of what is known about Italy’s Celtic peoples and their struggles with Rome is offered by J. H. C. Williams in Beyond the Rubicon: Romans and Gauls in Republican Italy (2001). Williams strongly favours July 387 BC as the date for the battle on the Allia (which could theoretically have taken place in July 386 instead). I Celti in Italia by Maria Teresa Grassi (Milan 2009) describes finds discovered in Celtic Senone graves. Barry Cunliffe’s The Ancient Celts (1991) remains a classic on the subject and Peter Berresford Ellis, A Brief History of the Druids (2002) though more controversial, offers insights into early Celtic society. It is Ellis who points out that the name Brennus probably meant king. For the close connection between early Latin and Celtic languages see Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World (2006).
II
T. J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC) (1995) provides an encyclopaedic account of Rome’s origins, topography, defences, society and politics, dealing clearly with the complex arguments that surround every issue, and many details in this chapter are drawn from Cornell’s account. Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, from Prehistory to the First Punic War (2006) offers a useful addition to Cornell’s work. Mary Beard, S.P.Q.R. A History of Ancient Rome (2015) adds fascinating further insights into Rome’s early years.
On Romans’ early beliefs see Mary Beard, John North and Simon Price, Religions of Rome, Volume I, a History (1998). The comparison between Olynthos and classical Italian cities is drawn from Andrew Wallace-Hadrill’s Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum (1994). On Romans’ early diet see Fabio Parasecoli, Al Dente: A History of Food in Italy (2014). For Rome’s games and the procession from the Capitoline see Filippo Coarelli, Rome and Environs: An Archaeological Guide, trans. James L. Clauss and Daniel P. Harmon (2014) and H. H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic, (1981). For early Veii see H. H. Scullard’s The Etruscan Cities and Rome (1967).
III
The notion that later Romans wove misleading stories from misunderstood inscriptions on the temple of Juno Moneta is proposed by Gary Forsythe. J. H. C. Williams details evidence that the Romans paid off the Gauls and that all of the city, including the Capitoline, may have fallen to them. Williams also offers an intriguing parallel with the Greek city of Delphi, which was attacked a century after Rome, in 279 BC, by Gauls, also led by a king, Brennus, and about which stories of a heroic holdout also grew up, despite evidence that the Gauls were victorious and paid off. Williams suggests Livy’s stories may have been inspired by this Greek heroic invention.
Chapter Two
I
On Himmler’s visit to Cosenza see Peter Longerich, Heinrich Himmler (2013); Eugene Dollmann, Un Schiavo Libero (1968) and Eugene Dollmann, Roma Nazista (2002). Dollmann was a keen storyteller and had every reason to distance himself from Himmler, who employed Dollmann as his personal Italian informant for some years, so his tale of the French diviner is questionable but there is
no doubt that Himmler came to Cosenza that morning to see Alaric’s supposed grave. A year and a half later he pressured the Italian police chief, Bocchini, to send an expedition to Cosenza to search for it.
On the origins of the Goths, their struggles with the Roman Empire, the evolution of the Visigoths, Alaric’s progress to Rome and the likely composition of the horde that followed him, see Peter Heather, The Goths (1996); Goths and Romans 332–489 (1991) and also his magnificent portrait of this era, The Fall of the Roman Empire, A New History (2005). In the latter Heather suggests Stilicho made his seemingly strange decision to go to war with the Eastern Roman Empire because he could see trouble coming on the Rhine frontier and wanted to augment his troops by taking a key recruiting area in the Balkans that had passed to the Eastern Empire. On the need for Germanic leaders to keep their followers supplied with plunder see also E. A. Thompson, The Visigoths in the Time of Ulfila (1966).
On causes of the Empire’s late fourth-century crisis and the Western Empire’s eventual fall, Heather emphasizes the advances made by Germanic peoples as they became more numerous and their states larger and more sophisticated. An analysis focusing on Roman weaknesses can be found in Adrian Goldsworthy: How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower (2009). Goldsworthy emphasizes the role of the Empire’s constant civil wars and also notes some doubtful military innovations that appeared in the fourth century, notably the tendency to house troops away from the front line in cities, where they may have become distracted by comforts.
II
On early fifth-century Rome’s topography the classic account remains Richard Krautheimer, Rome, Profile of a City, 312–1308 (1980). An excellent accompaniment that focuses more closely on archaeological discoveries can be found in Bryan Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy, AD 300–850 (Oxford Historical Monographs) (1984). A detailed and more up-to-date study from an archaeological viewpoint is offered by Neil Christie, From Constantine to Charlemagne, an Archaeological History of Italy ad 300–800 (2006).
On ordinary life in Rome during its imperial glory days the best single account is still Jérôme Carcopino’s Daily Life in Ancient Rome, the People and the City at the Height of the Empire, trans. Henry T. Rowell (1975). More recent portraits of classical Rome at its height include Alberto Angela, A Day in the Life of Ancient Rome (2011). For all aspects of Rome in the fifth century, including its walls, its architecture, amenities, society, government and ornamental republican political posts, see Bertrand Lançon, Rome in Late Antiquity, Everyday Life and Urban Change, AD 312–609, trans. Antonia Newell (2000). On different marbles, see Amanda Claridge, Rome, an Oxford Archaeological Guide (1998). The itinerary of Rome’s amenities is from Lançon.
For the domestic side of imperial government see Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, ‘The Imperial Court’ in The Cambridge Ancient History, X, The Augustine Empire, 43 BC–69 AD (1996). For the House of Romulus see Claridge. For the demise of Roman theatre and the macabre ending of the Laureolus drama of the late first century AD, see Carcopino. For the frailties of the Colosseum, see David Karmon, The Ruin of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011). For its entertainments see Angela, who offers a vivid account of what took place in the arena. For Valentian I’s witch trials of senators (AD 369–371) see Lançon. For new imperial architectural styles that used vaulted concrete see William L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, Volume 1, an Introduction (1965). On the likelihood that something went badly wrong with the columns of the Pantheon’s portico, see Claridge. On how art and inscriptions grew cruder during the Third Century Crisis, and also on pagan beliefs and their demise, see Robin Lane Fox, Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean World, From the 2nd Century AD to the Conversion of Constantine (1986). On aristocratic Romans’ views on sex see Angela. On the early Church’s distaste for sex of almost any kind, see Lane Fox.
For the demise of paganism see Religions of Rome, Volume I, a History, by Mary Beard, John North and Simon Price (1998) and John R. Curran’s Pagan City and Christian Capital, Rome in the Fourth Century (2000), which succeeds in breathing life into this elusive era. On possessed Christians found outside cathedrals (in France rather than Rome, though one imagines they would have been outside Roman churches, too) see Peter Brown, ‘Sorcery, Demons and the Rise of Christianity: from later Antiquity into the Middle Ages’ in Peter Brown, Religion and Society in the Age of Augustine (1972). For the displacement of guardian angels by martyr saints, and also for security measures used to restrain over-zealous pilgrims from reaching saints’ remains, see Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints, its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity (1981). For the rediscovery and invention of new martyr saints for Rome by Bishop Damasus, and Peter’s role as gatekeeper to heaven, see Alan Thacker, ‘Rome of the Martyrs: Saints, Cults and Relics, Fourth to Seventh Centuries’ in Roma Felix – Formation and Reflections of Mediaeval Rome, ed. Éamonn Ó Carragáin and Carol Neuman de Vegvar (2008). For the likelihood that St Peter never came to Rome, and for Pope Pius XII’s excavations beneath the altar of St Peter’s, see R. J. B. Bosworth, Whispering Cities: Modern Rome and its Histories (2011). On violence between rival candidates to be bishop of Rome see Curran.
On Rome’s aqueducts and baths, see Krautheimer. On Rome’s food convoys and distribution, see Lançon. For early fifth-century Rome’s super-rich see Lançon and Curran. For imperial Roman food, dinner parties and haute cuisine, including recipes, see Patrick Faas, Around the Roman Table, trans. Shaun Whiteside (1994). On Roman apartments see Carcopino. On the unhealthiness of Rome see Vivian Nutton, ‘Medical Thoughts on Urban pollution’ in Valerie M. Hope and Eireann Marshall (eds), Death and Diseases in the Ancient City (2009) and also Neville Morley, ‘The Salubriousness of the Roman City’ in Helen King (ed.), Health in Antiquity (2005). On malaria see Robert Sallares, Malaria and Rome, a History of Malaria in the Ancient City (2002). On doctors and medicine, see Ralph Jackson, Doctors and Disease in the Roman Empire (1988). For slaves see Keith Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome (1994). On the relative lack of women visible on the streets, and the greater legal independence of women in the Empire’s heyday, see Carcopino.
The battles over the statue of Victory and account of conflicts between Christian ascetics and their less zealous Christian relatives, and Jerome’s loathing of the latter, are both drawn from Curran. Also from Curran comes the intriguing notion that Valerius Pinianus and Melania the Younger’s efforts to divest themselves of their wealth was a factor in the fall of Stilicho, and so helped bring about Alaric’s attack on Rome. Likewise from Curran comes the willingness of moderate Roman Christians, and even Christian emperors, to tolerate a pagan nostalgia in their lives.
III
On Alaric’s sieges of Rome, Ravenna and then Rome again, see Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire and Pierre Courcelle, Histoire Littéraire des Grandes Invasions Germaniques (1948). On how the Visigoths entered Rome and what they did there, an excellent analysis of the primary sources is to be found in Ralph W. Mathisen, ‘Roma a Gothis Alarico duce capta est, Ancient Accounts of the Sack of Rome in 410 CE’ in Johannes Lipps, Carlos Machado and Philipp von Rummel (eds), The Sack of Rome in 410 AD, The Event, its Context and its Impact (2013). On archaeological evidence of destruction in Rome, see Antonella Camaro, Alessandro Delfino, Ilaria de Luca and Roberto Menghini, ‘Nuovi dati archeologici per la storia del Foro di Cesare tra la fine del IV e la meta del V secolo’ in Johannes Lipps, Carlos Machado and Philipp von Rummel, The Sack of Rome in 410 AD, The Event, its Context and its Impact (2013). On archaeological evidence concerning damage to homes and an overall assessment see, in the same volume, Riccardo Santangeli Valenziani, ‘Dall’evento al dato archeologico. Il sacco del 410 attraverso la documentazione archeologica’.
On the later adventures of the Visigoths see Peter Heather, The Goths. On Augustine of Hippo’s response to the sack of Rome, see Michele Renee Salzman, ‘Memory and Meaning. Pag
ans and 410’ in Johannes Lipps, Carlos Machado and Philipp von Rummel (eds), The Sack of Rome in 410 AD, The Event, its Context and its Impact (2103); also see Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo (1966) and Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire. On the revival of Rome after the 410 sack see Elio Lo Cascio, ‘La popolazione di Roma prima e dopo il 410’ in Johannes Lipps, Carlos Machado and Philipp von Rummel (eds), The Sack of Rome in 410 AD, The Event, its Context and its Impact (2013).
Chapter Three
I
On Queen Amalasuntha see Kate Cooper, ‘The Heroine and the Historian: Procopius of Caesaria and the Troubled Reign of Queen Amalasuntha’ in Jonathan J. Arnold, M. Shane Bjornlie and Kristina Sessa (eds), A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy (2016) and also, in the same volume, Gerda Heydemann, ‘The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions’.
On the rise of the Ostrogoths and the composition of their fighting forces in Italy see Peter Heather, ‘The Goths’ (1996) and ‘Gens and Regnum among the Ostrogoths’ in H-W. Goetz, J. Jarnut and W. Pohl (eds), Regna and Gentes: The Relationship between Late Antique and Early Mediaeval Peoples and Kingdoms in the Transformation of the Roman World.
II
As this chapter deals with events that follow relatively soon after those of the last, there is some overlap in sources. For all aspects of the city’s infrastructure, buildings, society and population see Richard Krautheimer, Rome, Profile of a City, 312–1308 (1980); Bertrand Lançon, Rome in Late Antiquity, Everyday Life and Urban Change, AD 312–609, trans. Antonia Newell (2000); Bryan Ward-Perkins, From Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy, AD 300m–850 (Oxford Historical Monographs) (1984); Neil Christie, From Constantine to Charlemagne, an Archaeological History of Italy AD 300–800 (2006) and also Peter Llewellyn, Rome in the Dark Ages (1971).
On the Vandal attack on Rome, see Andy Merrills and Richard Miles, The Vandals. On the struggle by imperial authorities to preserve Rome’s heritage see Christie. On Theodoric’s reign and his attempts to shore up Rome’s infrastructure and traditions, see Jonathan J. Arnold, Theodoric and the Roman Imperial Restoration (2014). On the schism between papal candidates Symmachus and Laurentius see Jeffrey Richards, The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages 476–752 (1979). Also see Richards for Theodoric’s religious disputes with Byzantium, and Justinian’s replacement of Pope Silverius with Pope Vigilius. For imperial–papal disputes see also Llewellyn.
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