26. There is a growing literature on rural history in South Africa. Besides Beinart et al., Plough to the Ground and Hidden Struggles, and Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, see Colin Bundy, The Rise and Fall of South African Peasantry (London, 1979); Monica Wilson, “The Growth of Peasant Communities,” and Francis Wilson, “Farming, 1866–1966,” in The Oxford History of South Africa, ed. Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1969, 1971), 2:49–171; Stanley Greenberg, Race and State in Capitalist Development: Comparative Perspectives (New Haven and London, 1980); Timothy J. Keegan, Rural Transformations in Industrializing South Africa (Braamfontein, S.A., 1986), which focuses on the Orange Free State area; Krikler, Revolution from Above, which focuses on the Transvaal; and Michael K. Robertson, “Segregation Land Law: A Socio-Legal Analysis,” in Essays on Law and Social Practice in South Africa, ed. Hugh Corder (Cape Town, 1985), 285–317, which focuses on the Natives Land Act of 1913.
27. Union of South Africa, Report of the Natives Land Commission, U.G. 22, 1916, 2 vols. (Cape Town, 1916).
28. Union of South Africa, Social and Economic Planning Council, Report No. 9, The Native Reserves and Their Place in the Economy of the Union of South Africa, U.G. 32, 1946 (Pretoria, 1946), 9.
29. Union of South Africa, Report of the Native Economic Commission, 1930–1932, U.G. 22, 1932 (Pretoria, 1932), 224–28.
30. Bundy, Rise and Fall, chap. 8.
31. Muriel Horrell, African Education: Some Origins, and Development until 1953 (Johannesburg, 1963).
32. Union of South Africa, Commission for the Socio-Economic Development of the Bantu Areas within the Union of South Africa: Summary of the Report, U.G. 61, 1955 (Pretoria, 1955) (known as the Tomlinson Report), 53–55; Colin Murray, Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho (Johannesburg, 1981); Les Switzer, Power and Resistance in an African Society: The Ciskei Xhosa and the Making of South Africa (Madison, Wis., 1993).
33. See notes 26, 28, above.
34. Sol. T. Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa (London, 1916; reprint, New York, 1969), 13–14. See also Brian Willan, Sol Plaatje: South African Nationalist, 1876–1932 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1984).
35. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 85–92.
36. Union Statistics for Fifty Years, 122.
37. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 280; Union of South Africa, Third Interim Report of the Industrial and Agricultural Requirements Commission, U.G. 40, 1941 (Pretoria, 1941), 35, 80.
38. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 379; Union of South Africa, Report of the Native Laws Commission, 1946–48, U.G. 28, 1948 (Pretoria, 1948) (known as the Fagan Report), 10.
39. Natives Land Commission, 1932, 105–8, 228; Native Laws Commission, 1948, 25–33, 64–73; Francis Wilson, Migrant Labour in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1972), 233.
40. Sheila T. van der Horst, Native Labour in South Africa (London, 1942); Francis Wilson, Labour in the South African Gold Mines, 1911–1969 (Cambridge, 1972); T. Dunbar Moodie with Vivienne Ndatshe, Going for Gold: Men, Mines, and Migration (Berkeley, 1994).
41. Wilson, Labour in the Gold Mines, 45–67.
42. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 256–364.
43. Industrial and Agricultural Commission, 1941, 42.
44. Native Economic Commission, 1932, 141–57.
45. Ibid., 80–103.
46. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 387.
47. Industrial and Agricultural Commission, 1941, 42.
48. Union of South Africa, Report of the Industrial Legislation Commission, U.G. 37, 1935 (Pretoria, 1935), 141–57.
49. Ibid., 80–103.
50. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 387.
51. Industrial and Agricultural Commission, 1941, 42.
52. Native Economic Commission, 1932, 105–9, 228, 279–84.
53. Kenneth Grundy, Soldiers without Politics: Blacks in the South African Armed Forces, 48–62.
54. Fatima Meer, Portrait of Indian South Africans (Durban, 1969); Bridglal Pachai, ed., South Africa’s Indians: The Evolution of a Minority (Washington, D.C., 1979); Surendra Bhana and Bridglal Pachai, eds., A Documentary History of Indian South Africans (Cape Town, 1984); Geoffrey Ashe, Gandhi: A Study in Revolution (New York, 1968); E. Erikson, Gandhi’s Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (London, 1970).
55. J. S. Marais, The Cape Coloured People, 1652–1937 (Johannesburg, 1939; reprint, 1962); Union of South Africa, Report of the Commission of Inquiry regarding the Cape Coloured Population of the Union, U.G. 54, 1937 (Pretoria, 1937); H. F. Dickie-Clark, The Marginal Situation: A Sociological Study of a Coloured Group (London, 1966); R. E. van der Ross, The Rise and Decline of Apartheid: A Study of Political Movements among the Coloured People of South Africa, 1880–1985 (Cape Town, 1986); Roy H. Du Pre, Separate but Unequal: The “Coloured People” of South Africa—A Political History (Johannesburg, 1994).
56. Shula Marks, The Ambiguities of Dependence in Southern Africa: Class, Nationalism, and the State in Twentieth-Century Natal (Baltimore and London, 1986).
57. Richard Elphick, “Mission Christianity and Interwar Liberalism,” in Democratic Liberalism in South Africa, 64–80.
58. Union of South Africa, Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Native Education, 1935–1936, U.G. 29, 1936 (Pretoria, 1936), 142. Standards 1 to 10 correspond with American grades 3 to 12.
59. Z. K. Matthews, Freedom for My People (London and Cape Town, 1981), quotation on 58–59. See also Thompson, Political Mythology.
60. Bradford, Taste of Freedom, 1.
61. Here I have adapted William Beinart and Colin Bundy’s analysis in “Introduction: ‘Away in the Locations,’” Hidden Struggles, 11–12.
62. Beinart and Bundy, Hidden Struggles, 35.
63. On black politics in this period, see notes 8, 9, 54, and 55, above, and From Protest to Challenge: A Documentary History of African Politics in South Africa, 1882–1964, ed. Thomas Karis and Gwendolen M. Carter, 4 vols. (Stanford, Calif., 1972–77); Edward Roux, Time Longer than Rope: A History of the Black Man’s Struggle for Freedom in South Africa (London, 1948); H. J. and R. E. Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa, 1850–1950 (Baltimore, 1969); I. B. Tabata, The All African Convention: The Awakening of a People (Johannesburg, 1950).
64. Odendaal, Vukani Bantu!, 273; Walshe, African Nationalism, 34.
65. Odendaal, Vukani Bantu!, 274–75.
66. Notes 54, 55, above.
67. Bradford, Taste of Freedom.
68. Ibid., 214–16.
69. Ibid., 273. But see Beinart and Bundy, Hidden Struggles, which puts less emphasis on betrayal by the leaders.
70. Bradford, Taste of Freedom, 274.
71. Simons, Class and Colour; Roux, Time Longer than Rope; Lerumo [Michael Harmel], Fifty Fighting Years: The Communist Party of South Africa, 1921–1971 (London, 1971); Naboth Mokgatle, The Autobiography of an Unknown South African (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971).
72. Grundy, Soldiers without Politics, 63–89.
73. Raymond Dummett, “Africa’s Strategic Minerals during the Second World War,” Journal of African History 26:4 (1985); 381–408; Nancy L. Clark, Manufacturing Apartheid: State Corporations in South Africa (New Haven and London, 1994).
74. Union Statistics for Fifty Years, G5, K4, L10.
75. Ibid., G5, G11; Republic of South Africa, South Africa, 1983: Official Yearbook of the Republic (Johannesburg, 1983), 32.
76. Discussion in Native Laws Commission, 1948, 4–14.
77. A. W. Stadler, “Birds in the Cornfield: Squatter Movements in Johannesburg, 1944–1947,” Journal of Southern African Studies 6:1 (1979): 93–123, quotation on 93.
78. Peter Abrahams, Mine Boy (1946; reprint, London, 1963), 75–76.
79. Union of South Africa, The Economic and Social Conditions of the Racial Groups in South Africa: Social and Economic Planning Council Report No. 13, U.G. 53–1948 (Pretoria, 1948), 25.
80. Tom Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa since 1945 (London and New York,
1983), 18.
81. Ibid., 13–16.
82. Ibid., 17–20; Wilson, Labour in the Gold Mines, 77–80, quotation on 79; T. Dunbar Moodie, “The Moral Economy of the Black Miners’ Strike of 1946,” Journal of Southern African Studies 13:1 (1986): 1–35.
83. E. S. Sachs, Rebels’ Daughters (London, 1957); Iris Berger, “Solidarity Fragmented: Garment Workers of the Transvaal, 1930–1960,” in The Politics of Race, Class and Nationalism in Twentieth-Century South Africa, ed. Shula Marks and Stanley Trapido (London, 1987), 124–55. See also John Lewis, Industrialization and Trade Union Organization in South Africa, 1924–55: The Rise and Fall of the South African Trades and Labour Council (Cambridge, 1984), and Webster, ed., Labour History.
84. Lipton, Capitalism and Apartheid, 21.
85. Phyllis Lewsen, “Liberals in Politics and Administration,” in Democratic Liberalism in South Africa, 105.
86. Native Reserves, 1946, 47.
87. See note 76, above.
88. Lewsen, Voices of Protest, 15–62, and “Liberals in Politics and Administration.”
89. Ingham, Smuts, 218. See also Hancock, Smuts (2 vols.).
90. Lewsen, Voices of Protest, 23. See also Alan Paton, Hofmeyr (London, 1964).
91. Walshe, African Nationalism, 271–76.
92. Ibid., 283.
93. Z. K. Matthews, Freedom for My People (London and Cape Town, 1981), 148.
94. Ibid., 150.
95. Dan O’Meara, Volkskapitalisme: Class, Capital and Ideology in the Development of Afrikaner Nationalism, 1934–1948 (Cambridge, 1983), 221; Adam and Giliomee, Ethnic Power, 175.
96. J. Albert Coetzee, “Republikanisme in die Kaapkolonie,” in Ons republiek, ed. J. Albert Coetzee, P. Meyer, and N. Diederichs (Bloemfontein, 1942), 104.
97. G. Eloff, Rasse en rasvermenging (Bloemfontein, 1941), 104.
98. Newell Stultz, Afrikaner Politics in South Africa, 1934–1948 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1974); Patrick J. Furlong, Between Crown and Swastika: The Impact of the Radical Right on the Afrikaner Nationalist Movement in the Fascist Era (Hanover, N.H., 1991).
99. On the background to the election of 1948, see O’Meara, Volkskapitalisme; Adam and Giliomee, Ethnic Power; Stultz, Afrikaner Politics; Moodie, Rise of Afrikanerdom.
100. O’Meara, Volkskapitalisme.
101. G. Cronje, ’n Tuiste vir die nageslag (Cape Town, 1945), 79.
102. Deborah Posel, “The Meaning of Apartheid before 1948: Conflicting Interests and Forces within the Afrikaner Nationalist Alliance,” Journal of Southern African Studies 14:1 (1987): 123–39.
103. Davenport, South Africa, 323.
104. National News, May 19, 1948.
105. Rand Daily Mail, June 2, 1948.
Chapter 6: The Apartheid Era
1. White politics in the apartheid era are considered fully in T. R. H. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History, 3d ed. (Toronto and Buffalo, N.Y., 1987). See also Philip Bonner, Peter Delius, and Deborah Posel, eds., Apartheid’s Genesis, 1935–1962 (Johannesburg, 1993); Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer, From Apartheid to Nation-Building (Cape Town, 1989), Part 1, “Apartheid and Its Reforms”; and Deborah Posel, The Making of Apartheid, 1948–1961: Conflict and Compromise (Oxford, 1991).
2. Heribert Adam and Hermann Giliomee, Ethnic Power Mobilized: Can South Africa Change? (New Haven and London, 1979), 174.
3. Jill Nattrass, The South African Economy (Cape Town, 1981), 25.
4. G. D. Scholtz, Dr. Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, 1901–66, 2 vols. (Johannesburg, 1974); Henry Kenney, Architect of Apartheid: H. F. Verwoerd—An appraisal (Johannesburg, 1980).
5. Heribert Adam, Modernizing Racial Domination (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1971); Roger Omond, The Apartheid Handbook (Harmondsworth, 1985); Study Commission on U.S. Policy toward South Africa, South Africa: Time Running Out (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981); Leonard Thompson and Andrew Prior, South African Politics (New Haven and London, 1982).
6. Thompson and Prior, South African Politics, 83–88.
7. Study Commission on U.S. Policy, Time Running Out, 147–67.
8. Roger Southall, “Buthelezi, Inkatha and the Politics of Compromise,” African Affairs 80 (1981): 453–81.
9. Laurine Platzky and Cherryl Walker, The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1985), 65.
10. Omond, Apartheid Handbook, 109.
11. Platzky and Walker, Surplus People, 17–18. See also Colin Murray, “Displaced Urbanization: South Africa’s Rural Slums,” African Affairs 86 (1987): 311–29.
12. Tom Lodge, Black Politics in South Africa since 1945 (London, 1983), 91–113; Time Running Out, 57–59, 63–65.
13. Platzky and Walker, Surplus People, 128.
14. Ibid., 10.
15. See Appendix.
16. Ibid.
17. Study Commission on U.S. Policy, Time Running Out, 144.
18. Omond, Apartheid Handbook, 80.
19. South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1980 (Johannesburg, 1981), 458–500; Mokubung Nkomo, ed., Pedagogy of Domination: Toward a Democratic Education in South Africa (Trenton, N.J., 1990).
20. Hendrik W. van der Merwe and David Welsh, eds., The Future of the University in South Africa (Cape Town, 1977).
21. South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1978 (Johannesburg, 1979), 451.
22. J. Kane-Berman, Sport: Multi-Nationalism versus Non-Racialism (Johannesburg, 1972).
23. Alan Paton, Apartheid and the Archbishop (Cape Town, 1973).
24. John C. Laurence, Race Propaganda and South Africa (London, 1979); John M. Phelan, Apartheid Media (Westport, 1987); Survey of Race Relations, 1978, 128.
25. Leonard Thompson, The Political Mythology of Apartheid (New Haven and London, 1985).
26. Muriel Horrell, Laws Affecting Race Relations in South Africa, 1948–1976 (Johannesburg, 1978); A. S. Mathews, Law, Order, and Liberty in South Africa (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1972); Albie Sachs, Justice in South Africa (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1973); John Dugard, Human Rights and the South African Legal Order (Princeton, 1978).
27. Adam and Giliomee, Ethnic Power, 166.
28. J. D. Brewer et al., The Police, Public Order and the State (London, 1988).
29. Kenneth W. Grundy, Soldiers without Politics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1983), and The Militarization of South African Politics (London, 1986); Gavin Cawthra, Brutal Force: The Apartheid War Machine (London, 1986); Lynn Berat, “Conscientious Objection in South Africa: Governmental Paranoia and the Law of Conscription,” Vanderbilt University Journal of Transnational Law 22 (1989): 127–86.
30. Television started in South Africa in 1976. The 1977 annual report of the sabc stated that the television service “made the point of stressing the need for spiritual, economic and military preparedness” (Survey of Race Relations, 1978, 135). John M. Phelan, Apartheid Media: Disinformation and Dissent in South Africa (Westport, Conn., 1987).
31. On social conditions under apartheid in the African townships, see the works of African novelists, such as Ezekiel Mphahlele, Down Second Avenue (Johannesburg, 1959), Miriam Tlali, Amandla (Johannesburg, 1980), Mongane Serote, To Every Birth Its Blood (Johannesburg, 1981), Mbulelo Mzamane, The Children of Soweto (Johannesburg, 1982), and Njabulo Ndebele, Fools and Other Stories (Johannesburg, 1983). See also Joseph Lelyveld, Move Your Shadow: South Africa, Black and White (New York, 1985), and Robin Cohen et al., eds., Repression and Resistance: Insider Accounts of Apartheid (London and New York, 1990).
32. Helen Bernstein, For Their Triumphs and Their Tears: Women in Apartheid South Africa (London, 1983); Iris Berger, “Sources of Class Consciousness: South African Women in Recent Labour Struggles,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 16:1 (1983): 49–66; Elaine Unterhalter, “Class, Race and Gender,” in South Africa in Question, ed. John Lonsdale (Cambridge, 1988), 154–71; Diana E. H. Russell, Lives of Courage: Women for a New South Africa (New York, 1989); Li
ndiwe Guma, “Women, Wage Labour and National Liberation,” in Repression and Resistance, 272–84.
33. Francis Wilson and Mamphela Ramphele, “Children in South Africa,” in Children on the Front Line (New York, 1987), 52. See also Sandra Burman and Pamela Reynolds, eds., Growing up in a Divided Society: The Contexts of Childhood in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1986); Mamphela Ramphele, A Bed Called Home: Life in the Migrant Labour Hostels of Cape Town (Cape Town and Athens, Ohio, 1993); and Sean Jones, Assaulting Childhood: Children’s Experiences of Migrancy and Hostel Life in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1993).
34. Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1980, 85.
35. Francis Wilson and Mamphela Ramphele, Uprooting Poverty: The South African Challenge (New York and London, 1989).
36. Wilson and Ramphele, “Hunger and Sickness,” in Uprooting Poverty, 99–185; Aziza Seedat, Crippling a Nation: Health in Apartheid South Africa (London, 1984), 9, 87. See also S. R. Benatar, “Medicine and Health Care in South Africa,” New England Journal of Medicine 315:8 (1986): 527–32; Mervyn Sussner and Violet Padayachi Cherry, “Health and Health Care under Apartheid,” Journal of Public Health Policy 3:4 (1982): 455–75; Shula Marks and Neìl Anderson, “Diseases of Apartheid,” in South Africa in Question, 172–99; World Health Organization, Health and Apartheid (Geneva, 1983); H. M. Coovadia and C. C. Jinabhai, “The Pestilence of Health Care: Black Death and Suffering under White Rule,” in Repression and Resistance, 86–116.
37. Seedat, Crippling a Nation, 9, 25–26. Official health statistics in South Africa, especially for Africans, are incomplete and often suspect. Wilson and Ramphele give the following average infant mortality rates for South Africa in 1978: White 23, Asian 41, Coloured 139, African 136 (“Children in South Africa,” 43). Benatar gives the following infant mortality rates for South Africa in an unspecified year: White 17, Asian 25, Coloured 65, African 95 (Benatar, “Medicine and Health Care,” 530).
38. Seedat, Crippling a Nation, 31–48.
39. Ibid., 60.
40. Ibid., 10.
41. Thompson and Prior, South African Politics, 187–92.
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