Alexander’s formula, 30, 35
Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator), 124, 184
Alligator sinensis (Chinese alligator), 124
Allosaurus, 50, 63, 73, 150–51, 176–78, 195, 214–15, 218, 244, 277, 301, 348, 357
American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), 124, 184
American Museum of Natural History, 42, 49, 62, 96
Anchiornis huxleyi, 299
angiosperms (flowering plants), 353–57, 361. See also flowering plants
animal communities, evolution in, 9
anisodactyl, 307, 309, 314
ankylosaurs, 18–19, 23, 27, 38, 47, 88, 179, 192, 213, 225, 239–40, 251, 348, 351–52, 355, 369
Antarctica, 18, 23, 150, 270, 293
Archaeopteryx lithographica, 299
Argentavis magnificens (giant teratorn), 299–300
Argentina, 12, 18, 25, 43, 94, 96, 101, 109, 112, 206, 219, 263, 301, 345
arthropods, 259, 327
Aurornis xui, 299
Australia, 12, 43, 60–61, 73, 150, 153–59, 184, 239, 267–68, 270–73, 276–84, 286–88, 293, 298–99, 301–2, 304, 316, 318, 324, 330, 336–37, 341, 347, 361. See also Queensland, Australia; Victoria, Australia
Australian brush turkey (Alectura lathami), 105, 298
Austrobaileya scandens (perennial floweringvine), 293
B
baseline gait, 28
bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae), 307
beetles
about, 8, 108, 360
carrion, 109, 168
Cretaceous dung, 253, 256, 258
dung, 6–7, 14, 251–53, 256, 263, 331, 357
wood-boring, 254
bipedal. See also quadrupedal; three-toed; two-legged dinosaurs, 27, 29, 38, 63, 70, 86, 88, 175, 178, 310
facultatively, 27
trackways, 32, 70
Bird, Roland T. (paleontologist), 42, 46, 48, 213
birds
carnivorous, 228, 300
co-evolution of flowering plants and, 363
in Cretaceous Period, 360
early, 216, 360
evolution of, 215, 297–307, 313, 316–17, 360–62, 366
flightless birds are modern theropods, 36
in Mesozoic Era, 57, 299–300, 306, 361
non-avian dinosaurs, evolution from, 15, 361–62
bladed bumps (denticles), 180, 182, 261
bowerbirds, 293, 324–25
brooding behavior, 106
burrows, fossil, 12, 128
C
Camarasaurus, 50, 117, 218
Canada, 10, 23, 47, 189, 219, 260, 270, 333
Alberta, 9, 163, 168, 260
British Columbia, 23
cannibalism, 163, 187, 189, 234
carnivorous
birds, 228, 300
dinosaurs, 13, 130, 166, 182, 249–50, 261, 358
theropods, 163, 214, 251–52, 263
carrion beetles, 109, 168
cassowaries, 289–300, 307, 309, 325–26, 346, 361
Caudipteryx, 214–15, 217
Cenozoic Era (65 mya)
birds, evolution of, 361
flowering plants in, 264, 359–61
ceratopsian conflict, 6, 172
ceratopsians, 5–6, 8, 10, 18, 20–21, 23, 27, 35, 38, 45, 47, 52, 55, 70, 87–88, 92, 96, 128, 162, 169–73, 178–79, 185, 192, 213, 219, 251, 305, 348, 351
CGI. See computer generated imagery (CGI)
China, 16, 38, 40, 43, 47, 51, 94, 96, 98, 124, 147–48, 167, 189, 216, 219, 235–36, 310, 322
Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), 124
chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica), 228
Choteau (Montana), 252
Citipati, 38, 93, 96–97, 106
clades/cladogram of dinosaurs, 18–19, 27, 55, 92, 215, 266
clams, 5, 52, 205, 239, 320–21
Claosaurus, 213
clawmarks, 71–72, 292, 312, 315
climate change, 301, 335, 349–50, 352. See also global warming
cocoons
about, 8, 99, 107–8, 188
fossil insect, 108–9, 256
Late Cretaceous fossil, 122
co-evolution. See also Darwin, Charles; evolution
of flowering plants and birds, 363
of grasses and mammals, 264, 354
cololites (fossil intestinal contents), 226, 233, 238, 266
Colorado (USA), 23, 43, 46–47, 114, 243
combat (dinosaurs in), 52, 162, 172–74
computer generated imagery, 37, 165, 367
Confuciusornis, 236
coprolites (fossil feces), 13–14, 42, 221, 226, 233, 242, 246–66, 269–71, 278, 302–3, 305, 335, 351, 355, 357, 359, 369
crawling on hands and knees, 27
Cretaceous Period (70 mya). See also Early Cretaceous Period; Late Cretaceous Period; Middle Cretaceous Period
about, 3, 41, 134, 351
angiosperm seeds, 354, 361
ankylosaurs, 239
dinosaurs, 12, 54, 60, 168, 188, 238, 261, 270, 305, 355
dung beetles, 253, 256, 258
early birds, 360
ecosystems, 187, 253, 258, 364
egg-shaped mass of sandstone, 134
flowering plants in, 293, 353–57, 360–63
Frenchman Formation, 260
herbivorous dinosaurs, 355
meteorite (65 mya, near Yucatan peninsula, Mexico), 131
in Montana and Alberta, Canada, 9
98 million years ago, 56
95 million years ago, 133
non-avian dinosaurs, 264, 293
105 million years ago, 268
theropod dinosaurs, 290
titanosaurs, 118
Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, 55
crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), 184
“crouching” traces, 38
Cuba, 302, 307
Cygnus falconeri, 302
D
Darwin, Charles, 363–66. See also evolution
Daspletosaurus, 180, 189, 236–38, 262
Davenport Ranch (Texas), 46
deinonychosaurs, 16
Deinosuchus, 184
denticles (bladed bumps), 180, 182, 261
Devonian Period (400 mya), 232
diagonal-walking pattern/trackway, 38, 310, 336
dinosaur(s). See also non-avian dinosaurs
ancestors of, 14
behavior of, 12–13, 18, 27, 33, 142, 162, 177, 193, 196, 220, 233, 269, 353, 355, 366–68, 370
bipedal, 27, 29, 38, 63, 70, 86, 88, 175, 178, 310
butt, 39
cared for their young, 85
clade of, 27, 55
in Cretaceous Period, 12, 54, 60, 168, 188, 238, 261, 270, 305, 355
ecosystems, 226
eggs, 12, 85, 90–95, 97, 102, 252, 345, 348
evolution of, 14–15, 18–19, 85, 92, 214, 242–43, 362
family, 46, 95, 287
feces (“manna from heaven”), 14, 252–53, 266, 356–57
group-oriented, 47
herbivorous, 13, 126, 190–92, 214, 295, 351–55
ichnology, 21, 69, 74, 335
live birth of young (viviparity), 91
lives, tracing, 9–16
macroevolutionary studies of, 26
meat-eating, 214
in Mesozoic Era, 15, 37, 45, 87, 95, 149, 173, 234, 266, 306, 310, 333, 346
originated (235 mya), 25
proto-dinosaurs, 26
quadrupedal, 19, 27, 35, 38, 88
sauropod, 7–8, 337
sex lives of, 4, 16, 115
sitting traces, 41, 44
stampede of, 10, 65–67, 73–74, 79, 270
swim tracks of, 11, 44, 79, 238, 315
three-toed, 22, 64–65, 67, 69–70, 72–74, 79, 284
toothmarks of, 13–14, 50, 159, 162, 165–66, 168, 170, 178–80, 182–89, 218, 221, 224, 226, 233–35, 240, 249, 260–61, 269–71, 278, 303, 333, 335, 359, 369, 371
trace fossils of, 9–10, 1
4–16, 38, 63, 80, 102, 108, 120, 158, 161, 176, 178, 197, 207, 212, 216, 224
trackways of, 28, 30–31, 34–36, 38, 52, 65, 244, 277, 280, 287, 310
two-legged, 11, 27, 86, 178
Dinosaur Cove (Australia), 154, 271, 276
“Dinosaur Death Pits from the Jurassic of China,” 51
Dinosaur Revolution (TV series), 325, 348
Dinosaur Stampede (ABC film), 75
“Dinosaur Stampede in the Cretaceous of Queensland” (Thulborn and Wade), 65
“Dinosaur Trackways in the Winton Formation (Mid-Cretaceous) of Queensland” (Thulborn and Wade), 65
dinosauromorph tracks, 26
Diplodocus hallorum, 218
Dromaeosaurids, 21, 48
Dromaeosaurus (predatory theropods), 3–4, 8, 16
Dromaius novaehollandiae, 36, 298
Dromornis, 301
“duckbill” dinosaurs (hadrosaurs), 6–8, 14, 41–45, 55, 162, 189–92, 213, 225, 236–37, 254–55, 352, 355
dung beetles, 6–7, 14, 250–54, 256, 263, 331, 357
E
Early Cretaceous Period (120-135 mya), 219, 236, 293, 353, 355. See also Cretaceous Period
Early Jurassic Period (190–180 mya)
Ammosaurus, 218
dinosaur eggs, oldest known, 92
dinosaur swim tracks, 79
dinosaur tracks, 365
dinosaurs gave birth to live young, 91
feathered theropods, 40
Megapnosaurus, 214
period, 22
prosauropod Massospondylus, 96, 118, 219, 223, 316
rocks, 11, 16, 38, 41, 44, 92, 118, 148, 238, 315, 349
sandstones, 315, 342
theropod, 40
theropod swim tracks, 237
trace fossil, 39
trackway, 53
Early Triassic Period (245 mya), 26
ecosystems
about, 9, 14, 45, 53–54, 107, 131, 187, 231, 253, 258, 274, 292, 300–302, 305, 317, 332, 335, 355, 359–60
ancient, 14, 274
Cretaceous, 187, 364
dinosaur, 226
forest, 317, 357
freshwater, 339
Hawaiian, 302
land, 350
of Madagascar, 187
marine, 335
Mesozoic, 45, 85, 193, 266, 359, 362
ocean, 352
polar, 274
riparian, 358
savannah, 253
terrestrial, 335, 339, 353–54
top-niche predators in, 300
Edmontosaurus, 6–7, 13–14, 162–63, 166–67, 176, 185–86, 192, 213
egg-laying, 12, 91, 105, 116
Elephas maximus (Indian elephant), 43–44
emus of Australia (Dromaius novaehollandiae), 36, 298
enterolites (fossil stomach contents), 226, 233, 235, 238, 256, 266, 269
Eoraptor, 25–26, 263
evolution. See also Darwin, Charles
of amniotes, 91
of angiosperms, 354–55, 357
in the animal communities, 9
of birds, 215, 219, 297–308, 313, 316–17, 360–62, 366
of cannibalism, 163, 187
of carnivory, 263
of Chinese and American alligators, 124–25
co-evolution of flowering plants and birds, 363
co-evolution of grasses and mammals, 264, 354
“Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution” and, 354
dinosaur behavior and, 196
of dinosaur feet, 19–21
of dinosaur parenting, 100, 120
of dinosaurs, 14–15, 18–19, 85, 92, 214, 242–43, 362
dinosaurs originated (235 mya), 25
of endoparasites, 259
of feces and seed plants, 232
of flight in dinosaurs, 312
of flowering plants, 232, 353, 355, 357, 360
of gastroliths, 219
of grasses in Mesozoic ecosystems, 266
of herbivorous dinosaur species, 354
of land plants, 353, 357, 360
of land-dwelling vertebrates, 353
live birth and, 91
macroevolutionary studies of dinosaurs, 26
of mammals, 362
of modern dinosaurs (chickens), 92
of modern ecosystems, 332
of nesting in dinosaurs, 118
of non-avian dinosaurs, 362
of pachycephalosaurs, 173
of plant communities in northern Queensland, 293
of plant-eating dinosaurs, 191
of pollinators, 360
of Pterodaustro, 206
sexual selection and, 323
of terrestrial ecosystems, 335
of theropods, 317, 429
of tree-dwelling mammals, 360
of Triceratops horns, 170–71
trituration and, 200
of Troodon egg care, 93
of vertebrates burrow, 128, 144
of whales and sea turtles, 204
evolutionary theory, 67, 365
F
face-biting, 189
Feathers: The Evolution of a Natural Miracle (Hanson), 299
floodplains, 1–8, 43, 53, 90, 107, 153, 190, 252, 260, 262, 268, 274–78, 280, 284, 286–87, 299, 311, 314, 339, 341, 357
Flores giant rat (Papagomys armandvillei), 303
flowering plants (angiosperms). See also monocotyledons; non-flowering seed plants
angiosperm, 353–57, 361
in Cenozoic Era (65 mya), 264, 359–61
co-evolution of birds and, 363
in Cretaceous Period (70 mya), 293, 353–57, 360–63
evolution of, 232
in Jurassic Period, 232, 393
in Mesozoic Era, 232, 353, 356
modern, 353
forest ecosystems, 317, 357
fossil burrows, 12, 128
four-legged. See also two-legged animals, 30, 68
gait, 27
males, 86
toothy tracemakers, 370
freshwater ecosystems, 339
G
Gasparinisaura, 219
Gastornis (flightless bird), 300
gastroliths (“stomach stones”), 4, 13
gender differences, 46, 88, 114
Genyornis (bird), 301
geologic record, 34, 39, 42, 63, 88, 99, 138, 157, 198, 246, 319, 323, 325, 338, 344
ghost lineage, 26
giant teratorn (Argentavis magnificens), 299–300
Gigantoraptor (feathered theropod), 325–26, 329
Gigantosaurus, 37, 357, 368
Glen Rose, Texas, 42, 48
global warming, 348, 350–52, 354. See also climate change
Gorgosaurus, 189, 262
Great Ocean Walk (Australia), 268
grinding stones, 352
ground nests, 3, 11–12, 97, 109, 112, 228, 345, 347, 369
Guanlong wucaii, 51
gymnosperms (non-flowering seed plants), 353, 355–56. See also angiosperms
H
hadrosaurs (“duckbill” dinosaurs), 6–8, 14, 41–45, 55, 162, 189–92, 213, 225, 236–37, 254–55, 352, 355
Hawaiian ecosystems, 302
head-butting, 173–74
Hell Creek Formation of Montana, 189
herbivorous dinosaurs, 13, 126, 190–92, 214, 295, 351–55
Herrerasaurus, 25, 263
Hitchcock, Edward (paleontologist), 40, 366
Homo floresiensis, 303
Homo sapiens, 303
hypsilophodonts, 126, 150–51, 155
I
ichnology (study of trace fossils), 9, 21, 57, 60, 63, 66, 71, 88, 101, 138, 154, 160
ichthyosaurs, 91–92, 239, 242
Indian elephants (Elephas maximus), 43–44
iridium (rare element), 54
ischial callosity, 39
J
Jurassic Park (movie), 36, 48, 66, 74, 258, 295, 303
Jurassic Period, 41, 239
flowering plants in, 232
Late (145
-150 mya), 232
Middle (165 mya), 47
K
Kelenken guillermoi, 301
Kuban, Glen (paleontologist), 49
L
land ecosystems, 350
Lark Quarry (dinosaur tracksite, Queensland, Australia), 56–57, 60, 62, 66–70, 73–83, 270, 277, 337
Late Cretaceous Period (65 mya), 18, 23, 54, 118, 219. See also Cretaceous Period
Late Jurassic Period (145-150 mya)
Allosaurus, 150, 176, 214, 244
flowering plants, evolution of, 232
hypsilophodont dinosaurs, small, 130
Mamenchisaurus, 51
Morrison Formation, 195, 243
Nqwebasaurus, 214
rocks, 114, 242
sauropod Brachiosaurus, 241
sauropod Diplodocus hallorum, 218
sauropod tracksite, 46
Sinraptor, 189
small dinosaurs, 41
theropod tracks and sauropod bones, 49–50
theropod trackway, 52
Late Triassic Period (230 mya)
about, 22–23, 25
Allosaurus, 177
Coelophysis, 177, 240
dinosaur coprolite, 247, 263
dinosaur tracks, 50
dinosaurs, arrival of true, 25
dinosaurs eggs, 92
Eodromeus (“dawn runner”), 25
Eoraptor, 263
gastroliths Bull Run Formation, 221, 224
Herrerasaurus, 263
Maiasaura coprolites, 263
Massospondylus, 118, 218–19
ornithopod tracks, 365
Prosauropods, 22
regurgitalite, 240
saurischians, 219
sauropods, 23, 43, 223
theropod, fossil, 365
theropod Coelophysis bauri, 234
theropod coprolites, 263
theropod tracks, 222
tyrannosaurid coprolites, 263
warm climate of, 351
Leaellynasaura, 277, 283, 425
lesser rhea (Rhea pennata), 366
Limusaurus, 51
Living Dinosaurs: The Evolutionary History of Modern Birds (Hanson), 299
lungfish, 128–29, 188
M
Maiasaura peeblesorum, 95, 100–101, 107, 109, 117–18, 142, 250–58, 263, 316, 345, 347
Majungasaurus (large theropod), 186–87, 234
mallee fowl (Leipoa ocellata), 316, 347
Mamenchisaurus, 51
mammals
about, 12, 28, 48, 55, 85–86, 95, 129, 132
burrowing, 142, 144
Cretaceous, 62
egg-laying, 91
head-butting, 174
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