—
On October 16, 1944, more than seven hundred vessels of all sizes sailed from the New Guinea coast and headed northwest. Their objective was the waters around Leyte Island in the Philippines, thirteen hundred miles away. One of the warships in the vast armada was the cruiser Nashville, with the commander in chief aboard. Douglas MacArthur was going home. A dozen battleships, nearly two dozen aircraft carriers, and almost one hundred cruisers and destroyers surrounded and protected a huge array of assault vessels carrying more than 150,000 men whose assignment was to liberate the Philippines. Overhead, nearly one thousand aircraft flew in wide-ranging patrols, watching for enemy ships and submarines. One historian contrasts the fleet to the cross-channel invasion of Normandy the previous June, calling the latter a ferry operation by comparison.5
On October 18, two days before the planned invasion—MacArthur called it A-Day to distinguish it from the D-Day at Normandy—six U.S. Navy battleships passed into Leyte Gulf under the command of Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf and began shelling Japanese shore installations.
At ten a.m. on October 20, the first wave of four U.S. Army divisions—all part of General Walter Krueger’s Sixth Army—began hitting the beaches of Leyte along a ten-mile-wide front. MacArthur watched anxiously through his field glasses as soldiers and supplies pushed inland against less enemy resistance than he had expected. Finally, at one p.m. he had had enough waiting. He left the Nashville’s bridge, rounded up several of his staff, and ordered a landing craft to take them to the beach. Unable to get close enough to shore due to the number of craft unloading troops, supplies, and equipment, the commander in chief climbed out of the craft, dropped into nearly knee-deep water and trudged to the beach.6
A few minutes before two p.m. MacArthur stepped up to a group of microphones that would broadcast his message across the Philippines and eventually around the world. “People of the Philippines,” he began, “I have returned. By the grace of Almighty God our forces stand again on Philippine soil—soil consecrated in the blood of our two peoples.” He then asked the island nation’s population to rally to him and use every opportunity to strike against their common enemy.7
Months of fierce fighting lay ahead before the Japanese forces surrendered, prompted only by the atomic bombing of two Japanese cities and the emperor’s decision to stop the destruction. As Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, MacArthur accepted the Japanese surrender aboard the battleship Missouri on September 2, 1945. He then went on to administer Japan and transform it into a modern, Western-style democracy.
In March 1942, General Douglas MacArthur, along with his wife, Jean, and their son, was smuggled out of the Philippines to Australia. The general took command of a nascent army unprepared to fight the Japanese. Vowing to liberate his beloved Philippines, MacArthur soon set out to conquer New Guinea, the first step in defeating his enemy. Husband and wife are seen here in Brisbane, Australia, in 1944.
MacArthur is greeted by General Sir Thomas Blamey, Commander of Allied Land Forces, near Port Moresby.
Australian troops train on an obstacle course in Canungra during the early months of the war.
Rabaul, once a cosmopolitan town before the surrounding volcanoes destroyed much of it, became Japan’s most important base near New Guinea after they seized New Britain in 1942. The harbor is seen here packed with Japanese ships during an Allied air attack.
Papuan constabulary troops stand at attention before Australian officers.
General George C. Kenney, MacArthur’s trusted air chief throughout much of the New Guinea campaign. Journalist Clare Boothe Luce described Kenney as “a bright, hard, scar-faced little bulldog of a man.”
Robert L. Eichelberger, the American general tasked with taking Buna from the Japanese. MacArthur considered Eichelberger “a commander of the first order, fearless in battle, and especially popular with the Australians.”
An American antiaircraft battery searches the sky for Japanese planes at Port Moresby, New Guinea.
Major General Edwin Forrest Harding, commander of the 32nd Division. A frontline general, he was nearly killed prior to Buna, but performed poorly during the battle and was relieved of his command.
Australian troops trudge through thick mud along the Kokoda Track on the way to Buna.
An Australian mortar team fires at a tree line infested with Japanese snipers in the area of Gona.
Papuan natives carry a wounded American soldier from the front line near Buna Mission.
Japanese dead litter the beach at Buna.
Specially designed landing craft, known as “Higgins boats,” proved vital for the campaign’s numerous amphibious operations. Higgins boats are seen here under assembly at a military plant in Cairns, Australia.
An Imperial Navy warship under attack during the Battle of the Bismark Sea, a disastrous setback for the Japanese.
Australian soldiers fire a mountain gun on Japanese positions during the assault on Salamaua.
Parachute bombs descend on two Japanese fighter planes during an attack at Dagua airdrome. Every plane at Dagua was destroyed in the Wewak raids of August 1943.
MacArthur visits with troopers of the 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment before their drop on the Nadzab airfield.
Paratroopers of the 503rd prepare for their first combat drop of the war.
A 503rd paratrooper wields a Thompson submachine gun while guarding the Nadzab airstrip.
Lieutenant General Walter Krueger (second from left) confers with 41st Division officers on Aitape. Brigadier General Jens Doe (second from right) looks on.
An Australian soldier carries a wounded comrade back to a dressing station in the wake of a dawn attack on the Japanese-held village of Sattelberg.
Jeeps haul troops of the 32nd Division to the airstrip at Saidor.
LVTs line up, loaded with troops, preparing to embark for the invasion at Arawe.
Alamo Scouts, members of MacArthur’s own elite reconnaissance units, land on the rocky shore of tiny Kwokeboh Island in Tanahmerah Bay.
MacArthur meets with Lieutenant General Walter Krueger, the commander of Sixth Army, on Goodenough Island. The German-born Krueger had no real combat experience when he arrived in the Pacific, but he quickly proved himself an essential leader in MacArthur’s campaign to seize New Guinea.
Five American generals hold a conference on Goodenough Island: (left to right) Kenney, Brigadier General Stephen J. Chamberlain, Krueger, MacArthur, and General George Marshall.
A Marine captain displays a plaster model of Cape Gloucester to MacArthur prior to the invasion. Major General William H. Rupertus, commander of the 1st Marine Division, looks on in the background.
Marines of the 5th Regiment lug weapons and ammunition during the fight on Cape Gloucester.
Two M-3 Stuart light tanks roll beneath a coconut grove on Los Negros.
MacArthur, accompanied by Vice Admiral Thomas Kinkaid and soldiers of the First Cavalry Division, surveys Japanese dead on Los Negros.
Troops unload ammunition from a conveyor belt set up off an LVT at Tanahmerah Bay.
MacArthur congratulates General Frederick A. Irving at Tanahmerah Bay, surrounded by soldiers of the 24th Division, as Admiral Daniel E. Barbey looks on.
Troops crawl down cargo nets into landing craft bound for Wakde Island.
Paratroopers of the 503rd descend on the dangerous drop zone near the Kimiri airstrip on Noemfoor Island.
Soldiers of the 167th Infantry Regiment, 31st Division, eat a meal under the Pacific sky while sailing for Morotai.
MacArthur poses with the fighting men of the 31st Division on Morotai.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In his recent book, A Disease in the Public Mind, noted author and historian Thomas Fleming wrote, “My favorite metaphor for writing a history book is the image of an author standing on the shoulders of dozens of previous scholars.” Fo
r me, this is especially true with the writing of this book. I am in debt to a number of historians who have written or researched various aspects of the war in New Guinea. These include, especially, Peter Williams in Australia, whose book The Kokoda Campaign 1942: Myth and Reality was an invaluable source, as was his help and advice; and Bruce Gamble, an American author who has written extensively about the Japanese invasion of Rabaul and its later recapture by the Allies, who also provided valuable assistance.
I owe a special thank-you to James W. Zobel of the MacArthur Memorial in Norfolk, Virginia, for his kindness and generosity. Also a thank-you to Lance Zedric, historian of the Alamo Scouts Historical Foundation, for his expertise.
Several people helped with the writing and editing over the past several years, including my wife, Kathy; my daughters, Alexandra and Olivia; and my close friend Michele Del Monte. Roger Labrie read and commented on the entire manuscript with professional expertise and understanding. Thanks to you all.
My appreciation goes to my agent, Deborah Grosvenor, who liked the idea for this book the moment we discussed it and kept after me to write it. Finally, thanks to my editor, Brent Howard, who saw the value of this project and wanted to publish it, and had the patience to allow me the extra time I needed to complete it. His contribution to improving the manuscript in many ways earned my lasting respect. To the many people who helped along the way but whose names do not appear above, please once again accept my gratitude for your assistance and my apology for the absence of your name.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
OFFICIAL HISTORIES
Australian Government Documents and Publications
Brown, Gary, and David Anderson. Invasion 1942: Australia and the Japanese Threat. Canberra: Parliamentary Research Service, 1992.
Bullard, Steven, trans. Japanese Army Operations in the South Pacific Area: New Britain and Papua Campaigns, 1942–1943. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 2007.
Dexter, David. The New Guinea Offensives. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1961.
Gill, G. Hermon. Royal Australian Navy 1939–1942. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1957.
Gillison, Douglas. Royal Australian Air Force 1939–1942. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1964.
Long, Gavin Merrick. Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1963.
McCarthy, Dudley, Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Vol. 5, South-West Pacific Area—First Year. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1959.
Yoshihara, Lt. Gen. Kane. Southern Cross: Memories of the War in Eastern New Guinea. Translated by Doris Heath. Canberra, Australia: Australian War Memorial, Manuscript MSS0725, 1955.
U.S. Government Documents and Publications
Beckman, Kyle B., LCDR, USN. Personality and Strategy. Fort Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 2002.
Casey, Major General Hugh J. Amphibian Engineer Operations. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief Engineer, 1959.
———. Engineer Memoirs. Washington D.C.: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1993.
Coakley, Robert W. World War II: The War Against Japan. Washington, D.C.: Center for Military History, United States Army, 1989.
Dod, Karl C. Technical Services, the Corps of Engineers, the War Against Japan. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1966.
Drea, Dr. Edward J. Defending the Driniumor: Covering Force Operations in New Guinea, 1944. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 1984.
Fowle, Barry W. Builders and Fighters: U.S. Army Engineers in World War II. Washington, D.C.: Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1992.
Frierson, Maj. William C. The Admiralties: Operations of the 1st Cavalry Division (29 February–18 May, 1944). Washington, D.C.: Center for Military History, U.S. Army, 1990.
Hough, Lt. Col. Frank O., and Major John A. Crown. The Campaign on New Britain. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1952.
Maneki, Sharon A. The Quiet Heroes of the Southwest Pacific Theater. Washington, D.C.: National Security Agency, 2007.
Milner, Samuel. U.S. Army in World War II: Victory in Papua—The War in the Pacific. Harrisburg, PA: National Historical Society, 1993.
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Parker, Frederick D. A Priceless Advantage: U.S. Navy Communications Intelligence and the Battles of Coral Sea, Midway, and the Aleutians. Washington, D.C.: National Security Agency, 1993.
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Reports of General MacArthur: Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area. Vol. 2, Compiled from Japanese Demobilization Bureau Records, Washington, D.C., 1950.
Shaw, Henry I., and Major Douglas T. Kane. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, U.S. Marine Corps, 1963.
Smith, Robert Ross. The Approach to the Philippines: The War in the Pacific. Harrisburg, PA: National Historical Society, 1994.
Vego, Milan. “The Port Moresby–Solomons Campaign and the Allied Reaction, 27 April–11 May 1942.” Naval War College Review 65 (1) (Winter 2012).
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PUBLISHED WORKS
Alexander, Larry. Shadows in the Jungle: The Alamo Scouts Behind Japanese Lines in World War II. New York: NAL Caliber, 2009.
Alexander, Joseph H. Storm Landings: Epic Amphibious Battles in the Central Pacific. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2009.
Ambrose, Stephen. Eisenhower: Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect. Vol. 1. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983.
Aplin, Douglas. Rabaul 1942. Melbourne: 2/22 Battalion A.I.F. Lark Force Association, 1980.
Archer, Jules. Front-Line General: Douglas MacArthur. New York: Julian Messner, 1963.
———. Jungle Fighters: A G.I. War Correspondent’s Experiences in the New Guinea Campaign. New York: Julian Messner, 1985.
Arnold, H. H. Global Mission. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949.
Astor, Gerald. Crises in the Pacific. New York: Donald I. Fine Books, 1996.
Barbey, Daniel E. MacArthur’s Amphibious Navy: Seventh Amphibious Force Operations 1943–1945. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute, 1969.
Bentley, Caitlin T. Disease and Destitution: Malaria and the Liberation of New Guinea and the Philippine Islands. Research Thesis, Ohio State University, 2013.
Berg, A. Scott. Lindbergh. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1998.
Bergerud, Eric. Touched with Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific. New York: Penguin Books, 1996.
———. Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
Bernstein, Marc D. Hurricane at Biak: MacArthur Against the Japanese, May–August 1944. Xlibris, 2000.
Black, Conrad. Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom. New York: Public Affairs, 2003.
Black, David. In His Own Words: John Curtin’s Speeches and Writings. Bentley, Australia: Paradigm Books, 1995.
Borneman, Walter R. The Admirals: Nimitz, Halsey, Leahy, and King—The Five-Star Admirals Who Won the War at Sea. New York: Little, Brown, 2012.
Bradley, John H. The Second World War: Asia and the Pacific. Wayne, NJ: Avery Publishing Group, 1989.
Bradley, Phillip. The Battle for Wau: New Guinea’s Frontline. Port Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
———. To Salamaua. Port Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Breuer, William B. MacArthur�
��s Undercover War: Spies, Saboteurs, Guerrillas, and Secret Missions. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
Brooks, Victor. Hell Is Upon Us: D-Day in the Pacific, June–August 1944. New York: Da Capo, 2005.
Brune, Peter. Those Ragged Bloody Heroes. St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1992.
———. A Bastard of a Place: The Australians in Papua. St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 2005.
Bulkley, Robert J. At Close Quarters: PT Boats in the United States Navy. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003.
Caidin, Martin, and Edward Hymoff. The Mission. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1964.
Campbell, James. The Ghost Mountain Boys: Their Epic March and the Terrifying Battle for New Guinea—The Forgotten War of the South Pacific. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007.
———. The Color of War: How One Battle Broke Japan and Another Changed America. New York: Crown, 2012.
Catanzaro, Francis B. With the 41st Division in the Southwest Pacific. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.
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