It is time to focus on North America and the circumstances peculiar to this geographical region in the development of Jazz.
One of the circumstances which shaped the evolution of African music in North America has to do with the nature of slavery as practiced in this region - and where slaves were obtained. Both of these elements shaped the musical evolution toward Jazz.
First, the majority of slaves were brought to the United States from the West Indies (the Rum, Sugar, and Slave Triangle Trade). Rather than being able to live in: “closed communities in which African Tribal groups could still function, the Blacks were brought to the United States from the West Indies, where elements of African culture had already begun to change and disappear…”
Here, the African slave was first influenced by the European country controlling the particular part of the Caribbean - either French or Spanish - and the particular music of that country was the first encounter (‘Jelly Roll’ Morton’s Spanish Tinge?). The Black slave often remained in this area for months to years before relocation to the US - time enough to assimilate many European influences.
Second, the dominant religion of the region greatly effected how much of the cultural heritage the Black slave could retain: “the impact of Protestant denominations in the United States was of such a nature as to annihilate many, if not most of the West African religious practices.”
It was this difference in religious orientation which shaped some of the differences between North and South America. The Catholic colonies, for the most part, were not too concerned with the religious life of the slave. As such, they were allowed much more latitude in retaining the musical and religious culture of West Africa - also, Catholicism had a similarity to West African religions which eased assimilation into the religious practices of the Slave population. Protestant denominations actively proselytized for conversion in the United States and replaced to a much greater degree the religious culture of the Black slave. I feel that this is one reason the music of Latin America retains much more direct African elements than that of North America. Also,coupled with the closer contact between master and slave in North America, the African heritage (while certainly not disappearing) was retained less as specifics and more as a value structure.
Risking a very general “generalization”, the European countries involved in the slave trade had markedly different ways of dealing with the African. The Catholic countries of France and Spain allowed the African to function in a closed group which allowed the African to retain more of his culture. The North American area - mainly English and Protestant - did not. Here, the African was forced to assimilate to a greater degree and as a result lost more of his particular culture - and was influenced to a greater degree by the culture of the slave masters. The process also worked in the other direction - the African slave had a greater impact on the surrounding European culture. It was the closeness of the cultural contact which was so different - and that closeness extended to the musics of both cultures.
It seems to be that: “on the whole, those features of music that were most strongly developed in Africa have to some extent also been retained in Afro-American music; and, conversely, those which were not developed to any great degree of complexity or distinctiveness (such as scale) seem to have given way to traits bearing the European trademark.”
The African features retained are the emphasis on rhythm, the use of syncopation and complicated rhythmic figures, an emphasis on “beat”, adherence to strict meter and tempo, call and response patterns, love of instruments and instrumental musics, and vocal techniques, improvisatory techniques, and use of short theme variation. The European features incorporated are musical forms, harmonic structure, instruments, and scale.
These are the common musical aspects mentioned in any discussion of Jazz Origins. But, to my mind, it is not Jazz - yet. The Afro-American musical culture is more than just the idiom of Jazz. There is a rich tradition of Afro-American folksongs and other musics - they are just not as widely known. I mentioned some recorded sources last month for listening. To my ear, the Folksongs are closer to the European/American Folk Idiom than the African - with African elements present but not predominant.
Both cultures borrowed freely in this area and that of Religious musics, and Popular musics of the period - 1800’s. We still need the unique set of circumstances which produced Jazz.
The three European cultures mentioned [Spanish, French, and English] exchanged colonial possessions - some areas living under the rule of each of these in succession. In these areas, the African slave was subjugated under the different attitudes about slavery and variations of music of each colonial power.
Also, I should mention that each of these colonial powers had previous experience in Africa - Spain was occupied by the Moors [often mentioned as an influence on the unique nature of that countries music].
But still, one last element is needed - a geographical area - one where all the influences can converge and intermingle; where the social factors were present to allow these four cultures to function concurrently; a period of relative political stability; and a heritage of freely accessible musical activity.
4 New Orleans
Before we visit New Orleans, we’re going to stop in the West Indies. Last month, I mentioned the factors of the slave trade and how the European Colonial Powers imported the slave population to the New World and the Islands of the West Indies as the first major stop in this forced migration. Remember also, that the treatment and attitudes toward the African Slave varied between the Latin-Catholic and the British-Protestant colonies. A more detailed description to the West Indies will provide some necessary background for New Orleans.
I will be using two sources for this next section:
• “The Story of Jazz”, Marshall W. Sterns,Oxford University Press, New York, 1958
• “A Story of Jazz”. Paul Tanner amp; Maurice Gerow, W.C. Brown Co.,Iowa, 1973
Each island in the West Indies represents a unique blend of African and European elements. Dutch Guiana - now the Republic of Suriname - had a large element of slaves who escaped into the interior jungle and they retained almost all their African heritage; those who remained on the coast and in close contact with the predominant European culture lost most of the African heritage. Haiti is a predominately Dohomean/French culture and the music is a blend of French folk melodies with African elements. Cuba is a predominately Yoruba/Spanish culture and the music also reflects this - the Habanera, Guajira, Punto, and Guaracha contain strong Spanish elements; the Rhumba, Conga, Son Afro-Cubano, Mambo, and the Cha-Cha are predominately African. Trinidad is a mixture of Spanish, French, and English influences - Spain and England held it as a colonial possession and the French entered as colonists. Important for us is a group of people called Shouters. This group were in effect a culture of African, Latin-Catholic, and with a final overlay of Protestantism (by conversion). The resultant religious music of this group is very close to a style of Revival music found in the United States.
These examples show how the particular European/African blend resulted in a uniquely different musical hybrid. The Shouters experienced the closest circumstances to that of the United States - and developed a music very similar to the Revival style in the United States. But, New Orleans added more to the mix. The circumstances here were similar but additional factors were present. It is the sum of these circumstances and influences which made New Orleans the Place in Time with the Opportunity for Jazz to develop.
The colonial history of New Orleans is a microcosm of the period. It was a French colony for its first 46 years. Customs were established that have endured to this day and during this period resembled the French West Indies. It was ceded to Spain in 1764 and then briefly back to France in 1800. In 1803, as part of the Louisiana Purchase, it was sold to the United States. In short, it was a Latin-Catholic colony of both France and Spain for 82 years and then part of a British-Protestant country. This history of the city created an environment very differ
ent from the rest of the US.
The slave population reflected each colonial preference - Yoruba with Spanish and French sovereignty (as France had taken over many Spanish possessions); Dahomeans, again, with French sovereignty. But, this population was mostly imported from the West Indies. Later, many were obtained from San Domingo with a stop over in Cuba. Also, there was still an influx directly from Africa. It is in New Orleans that the many African Tribal Cultures were able to also influence each other - right up to the Civil War.
The city, however, remained a predominately Latin-Catholic area. This - even with the increasing Protestant influence - enabled the African to retain much of his music and culture. But the increasing range of musical influences upon the African was unique. The Creoles who combined Spanish, French and African ancestry attained considerable social status and assimilated much of European Culture - many sent their children to school in Europe; the slave population in the large surrounding plantations were able to maintain most of their African heritage; and the economic prosperity of the city opened the paths of cross-culturalization.
With the Louisiana Purchase the great western migration started in the US. The opening of the Ohio and Mississippi river valleys created a demand for supplies most easily transported up the Mississippi river from New Orleans. New Orleans prospered and the city population doubled in seven years - from 10,000 (1/2 white amp; 1/2 black). This created a demand for entertainment and a singular mixing of the European and the African. Early on, the city was segregated along economic lines rather than racial - this spread the black population across the city and did not concentrate it in any one area (till the import of Northern prejudice after the Civil War). Sterns maintains that this economic prosperity is really what enabled this mixing of cultures to take place.
Two African-american practices have direct influence on the development of Jazz - the practice of Vodun and the pre amp; post Civil War performances by slaves and former slaves in Congo Square. The Vodun ceremonies (a African/Catholic mixture) tended to act as a preservation of many of the African cultural elements. It flourished in the city because of the long Latin-catholic history and the importation of slaves from the West Indies. Sterns indicates that ‘Jelly Roll’ Morton was a devout believer. The Congo Square performances (outdoor dances held 1817 - 1885) were legalized by the city’s Municipal Council in 1817 - in part to combat the underground practice of Vodun (which was illegal) and to provide a safety valve to keep the slaves contented. The performances brought the sounds of Vodun out into the open and hastened the blending of European and African elements. Each of these, in varying degrees, used melodic elements which were French-creole, were sung in a French-creole patois, and gradually mixed with European instruments as the century wore on.
The Latin-catholic heritage of the city pervades this pre-jazz period in many ways. The most direct link (to my mind) is the French Military Band. This particular performance group reached its peak in Napoleonic France. It spread throughout the United States as entertainment and New Orleans followed the French tradition. These Bands were employed at almost all functions - including funerals. The Afroamerican followed this tradition and organized similar musical organizations early on. Coupled with the development of the ‘secret society’ and ‘fraternal organizations’ which provided employment for these groups; they became a focus for the blending of European and African musics and instruments. It should be noted that the fraternal/secret societies and the forms of funeral ceremonies utilizing the Bands have parallels in the West African Traditions of the slave and former slave populations - the mixing of cultural influences is now in earnest.
One last factor needs to be expanded upon - the Creoles of Color. The Black Code of 1724 provision for the manumission (freeing) of slaves in which the children shared the status of their mothers created a new social class in the city. When a white aristocrat died, he frequently willed that his part-african mistress/slave should be freed and his children by this mistress were also freed. These people became know as Creoles of Color - with French, Spanish, and African ancestry. The children were often given all the advantages the family could provide - including a European education - and as such, assimilated a distinctly European heritage. The Creoles of Color attained status and wealth, some, by 1830, owning cotton and sugar plantations and slaves of their own. Their status however ebbed and flowed with the tide of prejudice in the city. By 1889, they were no longer considered a separate class and assumed a place in the Black community. Here, their European training in music combined with the influences of the former slave population and again provided a means for European and African musical cultures to mix. The Marching Bands provided the focal point of much of the musical contact.
But, it’s still not Jazz - yet.
5 The Birth of Jazz
Last month I felt I had covered all the background that was necessary to discuss the accepted start of Jazz in New Orleans at the turn of the century. After 4 articles, and the research associated with them, the actual writing had become routine. Starting this month’s article - I thought - would be just the same.
It was not. First, the material I had on hand was very light on the specifics of the period; second, I had only a few cuts of what was supposed to be New Orleans Dixieland (as opposed to the Chicago style), and lastly, I could not focus on a particular artist’s work for epitomizing the era. This article became difficult; but the mentioned reasons were not enough to diagnose a writers block - so I pulled out an old book (“A Pictorial History of Jazz”, Orrin Keepnew amp; Bill Grauer, Crown Publishers, Inc, 1966). I’m glad I did.
The hard part about writing a historical perspective (for me) is getting caught up in facts - but Jazz is not about facts, it is about people and the times they lived in. Looking at the pictures in this book put a human face to the words I had written and the facts I had researched. The deck of a slave ship, the sale of slaves after landing, streets with no cars, a view of the riverfront in New Orleans with clearly visible Paddle Wheel Steamers - all reiterating a ‘picture is worth a thousand words’. The reality of reading about historical facts and the danger of interpreting and imagining with a modern ‘minds eye’ does often distort our perspective, for what I saw was a society and musical environment far different from mine.
The pictures of the early New Orleans bands are most striking to me. There is one of Buddy Bolden taken before 1895. Much has been written about him - he is the musician (Trumpet) with whom Stearns starts his discussion of New Orleans Jazz. They are posed in dark suits and bow ties - not much different from today.
There are also two pictures - one of the Original Superior Orchestra (with Bunk Johnson) and the Imperial Band (with Manuel Perez) in uniforms - almost as if they took the picture before a street ‘gig’. It was here that these pictures became a window into their time and place In picture after picture, what I felt and saw in my ‘minds eye’ were people - people who lived, played music, worked hard to make a living, and had no idea they were making Jazz History. One aspect however is missing. The sounds of the bands and the people and the city. The names had no sounds linked to them: • Buddy Bolden, Willie Cornish, Frank Lewis, Frankie Duson, Bunk Johnson, Louis Nelson, Manuel Perez, Paul Barbarin, Luis Russell, Albert Nicholas, Peter Bocage, Lorenzo Tio,Jr., Oscar “Papa” Celestin, Jimmy Noone, John Lindsey, Johnny St. Cyr, Buddy Petit, Zue Robertson, Armand J. Piron, Louis Cotrelle, Freddie Keppard, Adie Venson, George Baquet, Bill Johnson, Dink Buddy Bolden Superior Band Johnson, Jimmie Palao, Norwood Williams, Sidney Bechet, Joe Oliver, Baby Dodds, Honore Dutray, Louis Armstrong, Fate Marable, Johnny Dodds, Pops Foster, Bill Ridgeley, Dave Jones, Joe Howard, Kid Ory, Mutt Carey, Ed Garland. just faces staring back from the page. Yes, some were eventually recorded later on but by then the music of Early New Orleans had already been influenced by the Chicago Dixieland style. What we know about this period is through reminiscences by the musicians who lived through it - it is the last era with no contemporary sound recordings (first jazz recording was
done in 1917).
These people were working musicians and I felt an affinity for who they were and what they did. I think I would feel comfortable with them as I do with anyone I play music with today. The recording industry and the public had not created superstars - though some were. They were people playing the music they knew and loved - trying to make some income while doing it. I doubt if they thought about and analyzed this music as we do - I am sure they studied it - but for them, Jazz History was not yet a subject for study, they were writing the first chapter.
Sterns states the dates for New Orleans Dixieland as 1900 - 1917 and as a music which we would recognize as jazz. It was here, that the: “over-all direction switched from European Elements dominating African elements to European Elements being influenced by a new combination dominated by African Elements”
The influences of French, Spanish, and British music continued to be a part of this new music. The melodies and rhythms of the popular songs of the day were a standard part of the repertoire. The execution of this style had some universal characteristics - The Cornet/Trumpet played the melody line with allowed embellishments (but not to obscure the melodic line), the clarinet played a harmony line above the melody and rhythmically created momentum within the ensemble, the Trombone played the most important note in the current chord change, the rhythm section consisted of banjo, tuba, and drums. This particular instrumentation lent itself well to both outdoor marching events and concerts/dances - not much different in function from the standard Septet format.
In conception, it was much different (in my opinion) than our modern jazz one. The rhythm section played a ‘flat four’ rhythm - four unaccented beats to the bar. This made it very close to the European March Rhythm and the 2 amp; 4 accent of the typical Jazz pulse is still absent. The Front Line (Cornet, Clarinet, amp; Trumpet) conceived their parts horizontally through the harmonic content of the particular tune. The typical performance practice was ensemble chorus, solo choruses, and a return to the ensemble chorus. This ensemble chorus was not strictly constructed through improvisation over the melody but often contained patterns which crept into the tunes through common practice - but the effect was a collective improvisation with great rhythmic complexity among the Front Line players.
Jazz: A Short History Page 2
