Lapis Niger A very ancient monument in the Forum, consisting of a block of basalt carved with words in extremely archaic Latin. It was already ancient during the late Republic and only a few words were recognizable. It bears to this day the oldest example of written Latin.
legion Legions formed the fighting force of the Roman army. Through its soldiers, the Empire was able to control vast stretches of territory and people. They were known for their discipline, training, ability, and military prowess.
libitinarii Rome’s undertakers. Their name comes from Venus Libitina, Venus in her aspect as death goddess. Like many other Roman customs associated with the underworld, the funeral rites had many Etruscan practices and trappings.
lictor Bodyguards, usually freedmen, who accompanied magistrates and the Flamen Dialis, bearing the fasces. They summoned Assemblies, attended public sacrifices, and carried out sentences of punishment.
maiestas A crime against “the majesty and dignity of the Roman people.” Not quite treason, but still a serious offense, it became a catch-all charge to use against one’s political enemies in the late Republic.
Master of Horse In Latin Magister Equitum. A dictator’s second in command. In times of emergency, the Senate could appoint a dictator who would have absolute imperium. The dictator would appoint a Master of Horse who would carry out his orders. Marc Antony (Marcus Antonius) was Julius Caesar’s Master of Horse.
military terms The Roman legionary system was quite unlike any military organization in existence today. The regimental system used by all modern armies date from the Wars of Religion of the sixteenth century. These began with companies under captains that grouped into regiments under colonels, then regiments grouped into divisions under generals. By the Napoleonic wars they had acquired higher organizations such as corps, army groups, and so forth, with an orderly chain of command from the marshal down through the varying degrees of generals, colonels, majors, captains, sergeants, corporals, and finally the privates in the ranks.
The Roman legions had nothing resembling such an organization. At the time of the SPQR novels the strength of a legion was theoretically 6,000 men, but the usual strength was around 4,800. These were divided into sixty centuries. Originally, a century had included one hundred men, but during this period there were about eighty. Each century was commanded by a centurion, making sixty centurions to the legion. Six centuries made a cohort. Each centurion had an optio as his second in command. The centurionate was not a single rank, but a complex of hierarchy and seniority, many details of which are obscure. We know that there were first-rank and second-rank centurions. The senior centurion of the legion was primus pilus, the “first spear.” He was centurion of the first century of the first cohort and outranked all others. Centurions were promoted from the ranks for ability and they were the nearest thing a legion had to permanent officers. All others were elected or appointed politicians.
Legionaries were Roman citizens. They fought as heavy infantry, fully armored and armed with the heavy javelin (pilum), the short Spanish sword (gladius Hispaniensis), and the straight, double-edged dagger (pugio). They carried a very large shield (scutum) that at that time was usually oval and curved to fit around the body. Besides holding the center of the battle line, legionaries were engineers and operated the siege weapons: catapults, team-operated crossbows, and so forth.
Attached to each legion were usually an equal number of auxilia, noncitizen troops often supplied by allies. These were lightly armed troops, skirmishers, archers, slingers, and other missile troops, and cavalry. The legion had a small citizen cavalry force but depended upon the auxilia for the bulk of the cavalry. Through long service an auxiliary could earn citizen status, which was hereditary: his sons could serve in the legions. Auxilia received lower pay and had lower status, but they were essential when operating in broken terrain or heavy forest, where the legions could not be used to advantage. In battle they often held the flanks and usually, with the cavalry, were charged with pursuing a broken and fleeing enemy, preventing them from re-forming or counterattacking.
There were other formations within a legion, some of them obscure. One was the antesignani, “those who fight before the standards.” Already nearly obsolete, they were apparently an elite strike force, though how it was manned and used is uncertain. It seems exceptional bravery was required for assignment to the antesignani.
In Decius’s time the legions were still formed as a unit, served for a number of years, then discharged collectively. Even when on many years’ service, they were ceremonially disbanded, then re-formed every year, with the soldier’s oath renewed each time. This archaic practice was extremely troublesome. When a few years later Augustus reformed the military system, legions became permanent institutions, their strength kept up by continuous enlistment of new soldiers as old ones retired or died. Many of the Augustan legions remained in service continuously for centuries.
The commander of a legion might be a consul or praetor, but more often he was a proconsul or propraetor who, having served his year in Rome, went out to govern a province. Within his province he was commander of its legions. He might appoint a legate (legatus) as his assistant. The legate was subject to approval by the Senate. He might choose a more experienced military man to handle the army work while the promagistrate (proconsul, propraetor, proquaestor, or procurator) concentrated upon civil affairs; but a successful war was important to a political career, while enriching the commander. For an extraordinary command, such as Caesar’s in Gaul or Pompey’s against the pirates, the promagistrate might be permitted a number of legates.
Under the commander were Tribunes of the Soldiers, usually young men embarking upon their political careers. Their duties were entirely at the discretion of the commander. Caesar usually told his tribunes to sit back, keep their mouths shut, and watch the experienced men work. But a military tribune might be given a responsible position, even command of a legion. The young Cassius Longinus as tribune prosecuted a successful war in Syria after his commander was dead.
mundus, pl. mundi Literally, “mouth.” A cave or opening in the ground believed to lead to the underworld and used to contact the dead.
munera Special games, not part of the official calendar, at which gladiators were exhibited. They were originally funeral games and were always dedicated to the dead.
offices The political system of the Roman Republic was completely different from any today. The terms we have borrowed from the Romans have very different meanings in the modern context. “Senators” were not elected and did not represent a particular district. “Dictator” was a temporary office conferred by the Senate in times of emergency. “Republic” simply meant a governmental system that was not a hereditary monarchy. By the time of the SPQR series, the power of former Roman kings was shared among a number of citizen assemblies.
Tribunes of the People were representatives of the plebeians, with power to introduce laws and to veto actions of the Senate. Only plebeians could hold the office, which carried no imperium. Tribunes of the Soldiers were elected from among the young men of senatorial or equestrian rank to be assistants to generals. Usually it was the first step of a man’s political career.
A Roman embarked upon a public career followed the cursus honorum, i.e., the “path of honor.” After doing staffwork for officials, he began climbing the ladder of office. These were taken in order as follows:
The lowest elective office was quaestor: bookkeeper and paymaster for the Treasury, the Grain Office, and the provincial governors. These men did the scut work of the Roman world. After the quaestorship he was eligible for the Senate, a nonelective office, which had to be ratified by the censors; if none were in office, he had to be ratified by the next censors to be elected.
Next were the aediles. Roughly speaking, these were city managers, responsible for the upkeep of public buildings, streets, sewers, markets, brothels, etc. There were two types: the plebeian aediles and the curule aediles. The curule aediles could sit in judgment on civil case
s involving markets and currency, while the plebeian aediles could only levy fines. Otherwise their duties were the same. The state only provided a tiny stipend for improvements, and the rest was the aedile’s problem. If he put on (and paid for) splendid games, he was sure of election to higher office.
Third was praetor, an office with real power. Praetors were judges, but they could command armies, and after a year in office they could go out to govern provinces, where real wealth could be won, earned, or stolen. In the late Republic, there were eight praetors. Senior was the praetor urbanus, who heard civil cases between citizens of Rome. The praetor peregrinus (praetor of the foreigners) heard cases involving foreigners. The others presided over criminal courts. After leaving office, the ex-praetors became propraetors and went on to govern propraetorian provinces with full imperium.
The highest office was consul, supreme office of power during the Roman Republic. Two were elected each year. Consuls called meetings of the Senate and presided there. The office carried full imperium and they could lead armies. On the expiration of their year in office, ex-consuls were usually assigned the best provinces to rule as proconsul. A proconsul had the same insignia and the same number of lectors as a consul. His power was absolute within his province. The most important commands always went to proconsuls.
Censors were elected every five years. This was the capstone to a political career, but it did not carry imperium and there was no foreign command afterward. Censors conducted the census, purged the Senate of unworthy members, doled out the public contracts, confirmed new senators in office, and conducted the lustrum, a ritual of purification. They could forbid certain religious practices or luxuries deemed bad for public morals or generally “un-Roman.” There were two censors, and each could overrule the other. They were usually elected from among the ex-consuls.
Under the Sullan Constitution, the quaestorship was the minimum requirement for membership in the Senate. The majority of senators had held that office and never held another. Membership in the Senate was for life, unless expelled by the censors.
No Roman official could be prosecuted while in office, but he could be after he stepped down. Malfeasance in office was one of the most common court charges.
The most extraordinary office was dictator. In times of emergency, the Senate could instruct the consuls to appoint a dictator, who could wield absolute power for six months, after which he had to step down from office. Unlike all other officials, a dictator was unaccountable: he could not be prosecuted for his acts in office. The last true dictator was appointed in the third century B.C. The dictatorships of Sulla and Julius Caesar were unconstitutional.
orders The Roman hierarchy was divided into a number of orders (ordines). At the top was the Senatorial Order (Ordo Senatus) made up of the senators. Originally the Senate had been a part of the Equestrian Order, but the dictator Sulla made them a separate order.
Next came the Equestrian Order (Ordo Equestris). This was a property qualification. Men above a certain property rating, determined every five years by the censors, belonged to the Equestrian Order, so named because in ancient times, at the annual hosting, these wealthier men brought horses and served in the cavalry. By the time of the SPQR novels, they had lost all military nature. The equestrians (equites) were the wealthiest class, the bankers and businessmen, and after the Sullan reforms they supplied the jurymen. If an eques won election to the quaestorship, he entered the Senatorial Order. Collectively, they wielded immense power. They often financed the political careers of senators and their business dealings abroad often shaped Roman foreign policy.
Last came the Plebeian Order (Ordo Plebis). Pretty much everybody else, and not really an order in the sense of the other two, since plebeians might be equestrians or senators. Nevertheless, as the mass of the citizenry they were regarded as virtually a separate power and they elected the Tribunes of the People, who were in many ways the most powerful politicians of this time.
Slaves and foreigners had no status and did not belong to an order.
patrician The noble class of Rome.
pedagogues Greek for a slave who accompanied children to school.
Pomerium The sacred boundary of the City of Rome.
popular assemblies There were several of these. They were non-senatorial and had varying powers. The Comitia centuriata included the entire citizenry. The consilium plebis was restricted to the plebeians. The comitia tribute consisted of the citizenry organized in “tribes” (voting groups.)
praetor peregrinus See offices.
priesthoods In Rome, the priesthoods were offices of state. There were two major classes: pontifexes and flamines.
Pontifexes were members of the highest priestly college of Rome. They had superintendence over all sacred observances, state and private, and over the calendar. The head of their college was the Pontifex Maximus, a title held to this day by the pope.
The flamines were the high priests of the state gods: the Flamen Martialis for Mars, the Flamen Quirinalis for the deified Romulus, and, highest of all, the Flamen Dialis, high priest of Jupiter.
The Flamen Dialis celebrated the Ides of each month and could not take part in politics, although he could attend meetings of the Senate, attended by a single lictor. Each had charge of the daily sacrifices, wore distinctive headgear, and was surrounded by many ritual taboos.
Another very ancient priesthood was the Rex Sacrorum, “King of Sacrifices.” This priest had to be a patrician and had to observe even more taboos than the Flamen Dialis. The position was so onerous that it became difficult to find a patrician willing to take it.
Technically, pontifexes and flamines did not take part in public business except to solemnize oaths and treaties, give the god’s stamp of approval to declarations of war, etc. But since they were all senators anyway, the ban had little meaning. Julius Caesar was Pontifex Maximus while he was out conquering Gaul, even though the Pontifex Maximus wasn’t supposed to look upon human blood.
Princeps (First Citizen) This was an especially distinguished senator chosen by the censors. His name was first called on the roll of the Senate, and he was first to speak on any issue. Later the title was usurped by Augustus and is the origin of the word “prince.”
scena A building or backdrop for a play.
The Sibylline Books Very ancient books of prophecy, kept by a priesthood called the quinquidecemviri; (board of fifteen men). In uncertain times, the Senate might order a consultation of these books to discern the will of the gods. The language was very archaic and obscure and the interpretation doubtful.
sistrum A percussion instrument consisting of a handheld frame to which small metal deses are attached, rather like those on a tamborine.
Social War A war fought from 91 to 88 B.C. between Rome and its Italian allies. It is call “Social” from socii, Latin for “allies.” It is also called the Marsic War (from Marsi, the most prominent tribe). Unrest developed among Rome’s allies when Rome stopped sharing wartime plunder. A political solution was first sought that citizenship. However, when Marcus Livius Drusus, who was the chief sponsor of the measure was assasinated war broke out. Rome won in the field, but wound up giving citizenship to the allies, thus a share in war plunder plus voting rights.
SPQR Senatus Populusque Romanus The Senate and People of Rome. The formula embodied the sovereignty of Rome. It was used on official correspondence, documents, and public works.
subligaculum The Roman loincloth. Typically worn during athletic activity.
thyrsus pl. thyrsi A wand wreathed with vines and tipped with a pinecone. It was part of the regalia of the rites of Dionysus/Bacchus.
toga The outer robe of the Roman citizen. It was white for the upper class, darker for the poor and for people in mourning. The toga candidus was a specially whitened (with chalk) toga worn when standing for office. The toga praetexta, bordered with a purple stripe, was worn by curule magistrates, by state priests when performing their functions, and by boys prior to manhood. The toga t
rabea, a striped robe, was worn by augurs and some orders of the priesthood. The toga picta, purple and embroidered with golden stars, was worn by a general when celebrating a triumph, also by a magistrate when giving public games.
triclinium A dining room.
triumph A ceremony in which a victorious general was rendered semi-divine honors for a day. It began with a magnificent procession displaying the loot and captives of the campaign and culminated with a banquet for the Senate in the Temple of Jupiter, special protector of Rome.
Vestal Virgins Virgin priestesses, chaste like the goddess Vesta; six of them served for thirty years, and any violation of the vow of chastity was punished by burial alive. Vesta’s shrine was the most sacred object of Roman religion.
Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Glossary
SPQR XII: Oracle of the Dead Page 24
