The Home Front in World War Two

by Susie Hodge

  “… Where no barrier rail is provided, any six or more persons…waiting…shall form and keep a queue or line of not more than two abreast on the footway.

  A person shall not take or endeavour to take any position in a queue or line formed… other than behind the persons already forming the same…”

  Nevertheless, no matter how desperate they were, there was still the feeling of general supportiveness for each other, as Barbara Matthews recollects:

  “There was a strong feeling that we must all share the food available fairly and that having money should not give you an advantage. Rationing was a lot of work for the shopkeepers, but it did work and nearly everyone was satisfied we were all treated equally.”

  The other side of the counter

  Among many concerns, not least obtaining goods to sell, making sure that fair trading was practised and trying to keep their regular customers happy, shopkeepers were hard-pressed to keep things going. There was little passing or new trade, especially if they sold predominantly rationed goods, as shoppers had to register with individual shops and few new products were being manufactured. The paper shortage meant that there were no bags – shoppers either dutifully brought their own with them, took old newspapers to wrap goods in, or they managed without. Sunday evenings were when many shopkeepers did their weekly coupon counting. Usually this involved other members of the family as it was so fiddly and time-consuming. Sweet coupons were the worst for shopkeepers to deal with. Hundreds of bits of paper had to be collected, counted and noted on a form, for which the Food Office issued a voucher for further orders of stock from the wholesaler. Any errors in the counting created real problems. If they claimed too few, shopkeepers did not receive their full entitlement of new supplies, and if they claimed too many, they were likely receive a fine or summons to court. Then there were the major, daily problems of giving each customer a fair entitlement. Too much bone in a meat ration and the customer would probably complain; even slightly overly generous portions and the shopkeeper would run out of supplies and not be able to provide all with their allowances that week. Many shopkeepers and shop assistants recall being singled-out by wealthier customers, through gifts and invitations to tea, in attempts to coax a few “extras” out of them. This crossing of the class barriers would never have happened before the war, but as soon as the war was over, the enticements and unexpected friendliness ceased.

  As a consequence of having fewer goods to sell, most shops shortened their opening hours. In October 1939 the Home Secretary made it a rule that all shops, except tobacconists, closed by 6pm with one later night allowed per week. By 1941 shop opening hours were reduced still further. Most large stores across the country closed at 4pm for the rest of the war, while factories lengthened their working hours. Restaurateurs struggled as much as everyone else. They had to ensure that the food was worthy of the effort of going out to eat and paying for it – no easy feat during rationing. But eating out at restaurants, canteens, cafés and British Restaurants increased during the war as eating out was not rationed. The government provided advice for those running factory canteens, which were also expanded during the war. Canteen Catering was a pamphlet issued by the Ministry of Food. Along with recipes, quantities and other helpful suggestions, it recommended canteen managers introduce unfamiliar foods gradually, such as oatmeal and different recipes for canteens in Scotland and England to meet varied tastes common to each part of the country, such as Cornish pasties or black pudding.

  Apart from factory canteens, which were helped by the government, customers could buy restaurant meals off-ration, but it was still difficult for restaurant owners to obtain food and the government imposed fairly rigorous rules. After 1942, when no restaurant could charge more than five shillings a meal and only three courses could be served, with one of them counting as a ‘main’ course, things became even more controlled. Many a restaurateur however made more money by charging for wine, bread and other “extras”. The government provided advice for those running canteens and with so many cookery books about, the focus was on eating healthily within the restrictions and within a short time, many restaurateurs became experts in providing nutritious and appetising meals, rather than anything complex or fancy, and everyone paid more attention to nutritious values and value for money than they had previously. All restaurants, canteens and cafés had to grow their own food as did private homes and the healthy, plain fare that was served was seen as helping with the war effort. Many restaurants displayed the sign: “Victory ‘V’ meals”, which signified that eating the healthy food provided within would help keep you healthy and so ultimately would help Britain win the war. British Restaurants, that were set up by the Ministry of Food and run by local councils on a non-profit making basis, were usually even cheaper than other restaurants, with a three-course meal invariably costing no more than 9d. Standards varied, but the good ones were extremely popular with large numbers of regulars. Run by local authorities, British Restaurants evolved from the London County Council’s “Londoners’ Meals Service” which began in September 1940 as a temporary, emergency system for feeding those who had been bombed out of their homes and to provide school meals for non-evacuated children in need of them. From 1941 it had assumed the additional responsibility for canteens at ambulance and civil defence establishments. British Restaurants were open to all but mainly served office, ambulance and industrial workers. The restaurants themselves were often run by women who were used to cooking for their families. Winston Churchill is said to have suggested the name “British Restaurants” to inspire feelings of patriotism – and it was preferred to the original and somewhat unpalatable earlier name given to them of “Community Feeding Centres”. One of the many benefits of British Restaurants was that even if a person had run out of – or lost – their rations, they could still afford to eat. Particularly popular in London, by the summer of 1941, there were over 200 British Restaurants in the LCC area and by the end of 1943, there were over 2,000 nationwide.

  The Rural Pie Scheme

  Food eaten outside the home stimulated plenty of enterprising initiatives. Following the government’s requests, in late 1941, WVS workers provided field workers at harvest time with daily hot meat pies. By the end of the year, over 70,000 pies were cooked and distributed to farm workers. Two years later, because of popularity of the scheme, the government directed each county to establish a special committee to administer and control their own production of pies. The pies were soon sold extremely cheaply, on a non-profit making basis, to anyone who worked away from the convenience of canteens or British Restaurants. The scheme continued to grow rapidly, and by 1943 there was a weekly delivery of more than 120,000 hot pies across the country, with a further 36,000 during harvest times or hop-picking. The pies were distributed by rail and then by any other means possible.

  The government provided advice for those running factory canteens, which were also expanded during the war. “Canteen Catering” was a pamphlet issued by the Ministry of Food, asking managers to introduce familiar foods gradually.

  Advice centres

  In accordance with the Ministry of Information’s primary task, to keep people informed and educated throughout the war, various advice centres were established along with all the leaflets and advertising. In 1938, in anticipation of a war, the National Council for Social Service (NCSS) had called a meeting where plans were drawn up to establish “Citizens Advice Bureaux” in the event of war. The following year, four days after the war broke out, the first 200 of these opened. Run entirely voluntarily by respected members of the community such as local bank managers, and funded by local councils, these government departments opened in various improvised offices, including cafés, church halls, private houses and even air raid shelters. One mobile unit even operated from a converted horsebox and travelled about heavily bombed areas to assist and advise those who were particularly adversely affected. By 1942 there were 1,074 Citizens Advice Bureaux across Britain. Each was established as an emerg
ency service, to provide free, confidential, impartial and independent advice on a wide range of issues that were affecting the people of the local community. They were invaluable resources for all sorts of crises and problems experienced across society and helped to make communities feel that the authorities were supporting them. Problems included debt, damaged or destroyed homes and repairs, loss of ration books, tracing missing servicemen or prisoners of war, pensions, income tax, jobs and evacuation. Even family issues were brought to the CAB, as it became known. CAB advisors also worked with other voluntary services such as the Red Cross.

  Health

  Barbara Matthews recalls: “One of my abiding memories of the war years was of everyone becoming tireder and paler and more lined as the months and years went by. But in those days, no one had the modern problem of getting fat!”

  Of course they did have the problem of getting ill – and of not being able to afford a visit to the doctor. Visiting one’s GP was neither as convenient nor as straightforward during the war as it became after the NHS was introduced in 1948. Before that, patients usually had to pay for their healthcare. Free treatment was sometimes available from some teaching or charity hospitals, such as the Royal Free Hospital in London. After April 1930 the London County Council took responsibility for 140 hospitals, medical schools and other similar institutions to try to provide health treatment for all Londoners. By the time war broke out nine years later the LCC was running the largest public health service in Britain. There were private health insurance schemes, often organised by companies and paid for by those in regular employment. Employees had a small sum deducted from their weekly wages, to which their employers and the government added contributions. But this was only taken up by certain trades and occupations. Other insurances were sought and paid for by individuals and families and while some of these contributory schemes were small and unreliable, many developed to become large, trustworthy and well-established. One of the largest was the Hospital Saving Association (HSA), which in 1939 had about two million members. The HSA required a contribution from its members for about 4d per person per week, which helped towards the cost of visiting the doctor or hospital. Certain common or deadly illnesses such as tuberculosis were not covered by these insurances, and medicines were paid for separately, but health insurance was considered a necessity by many. Qualified pharmacists were called up to the armed forces later than the general population because of the importance of their civilian work. But on the whole, most people stayed away from doctors if possible and treated themselves to defend against illness. Being healthy was a vital part of the war effort. Everyone was needed to work at their optimum capacity, as time taken off was a drain on all resources. The government recommended fresh air and exercise whenever possible, advising on weekend cycling tours or hiking breaks. As one advertisement for Ovaltine declared:

  “Health and Efficiency must be Maintained!

  Never before has it been so urgent a duty for everyone to maintain the health, energy and the will-to-win which are so vital to the success of the national effort.”

  The BBC introduced The Daily Dozen and Up in the Morning Early; 20 minute radio programmes featuring 10 minutes of exercises for men and 10 minutes of exercises for women. From 1942 The Radio Doctor was another daily programme, this time of five minutes duration, with Dr Charles Hill giving tips on how to keep well, what foods to eat to supplement rations healthily and quick remedies for specific ailments. Many recall his insistent sign-off line: “Make sure the bowels are well open!” With the introduction of the Vitamin Welfare Scheme, which came into effect at the beginning of 1942, all children under two received free supplies of cod liver oil and blackcurrant juice or when available, orange juice. A year later, this was extended to include pregnant women and children under the age of five, who also, since 1940, had been provided with free milk under the National Milk Scheme, if the household had an income of less than 40 shillings a week. The 1944 Education Act made it an entitlement for children of poorer families to receive free school meals and for all children in the United Kingdom under the age of 18 to receive one third of a pint of milk a day. Meanwhile, mothers dosed their children regularly with spoonfuls of malt, castor oil, liquid paraffin or syrup of figs, in efforts to ensure their good health. Maisie Walker remembers some of the popular remedies that were available (some more effective than others), such as Friars Balsam taken for coughs; an all-round antiseptic balm called Zam-Buk and an ointment called Wintergreen for aches, pains and cold symptoms; and Indian Brandee, taken for colic or female monthly pains. Yet these over-the-counter remedies were fairly limited, so many relied on homemade treatments. Bread or kaolin poultices were made to treat infected cuts or boils; the herb feverfew was steeped in hot water and sipped to subdue or avert headaches, solutions of cold tea were used to bathe swollen eyes, oil of cloves applied on cotton wool and held on a painful tooth helped to relieve toothache, a small warm onion or large boiled potato wrapped in a piece of flannel or a hot water bottle held against the ear were various treatments for earache. Bruises were smeared with a small lump of butter or olive oil or even a mustard poultice, potassium permanganate crystals were dissolved in varying solutions of water to cure athlete’s foot, psoriasis or to take the irritation out of the chicken pox rash. Kitty Pink remembered: “If anyone was stung by a bee, we made a paste of bicarbonate of soda. It took the pain away instantly! White vinegar was used to neutralise wasp stings.” The Ministry of Food paid people 3d per pound for rose-hips picked from the hedgerows, to make rose-hip syrup, which was extremely rich in vitamin C. As well as selling their own syrups – made by local branches of the WVS – the Ministry of Food issued a recipe for it:

  Rose-hip Syrup

  Ingredients

  2 lbs rose-hips

  4½ pts water

  1¼ lb sugar

  Method

  Boil three pints water.

  Mince hips coarsely and immerse immediately in the water. Bring back to the boil and then leave to cool for fifteen minutes. Pour into a flannel, muslin, or clean stocking and allow the liquid to drip through into a basin.

  Return this residue to the saucepan, add another 1½ pints boiling water, stir and allow to stand for ten minutes. Pour back into the jelly bag and allow to drip through into a basin. To make sure all the hairs are removed from the rose-hips, pour through the muslin, flannel or stocking and allow the liquid to drip through again.

  Put the juice into a clean saucepan and boil down until it measures about 1½ pints and then add 1¼ lb of sugar and boil for a further five minutes.

  Pour into hot sterile bottles and seal at once.

  Tip: It is advisable to use small bottles as the syrup will not keep for more than a week or two once the bottle is opened. Store in a dark cupboard.

  The war saw the spread of blood transfusions, which were relatively new forms of treatment. Blood had been transferred between people for some time, but the keeping of blood stores had not. Statistics were not conclusive, but it is believed that nationwide, between 7th September 1940 and 16th May 1941, 41,000 civilians were killed and 137,000 injured during air raids. As a result of new techniques in blood storage mobile blood transfusion units were set up that travelled around towns and cities collecting blood to store and to use to save lives. Penicillin became used for treating both wounds and venereal diseases, although most medical developments like this were concentrated on care for the troops, with less impact on civilian medicine. More civilians trained as voluntary first aid assistants, learning to diagnose, treat and prevent minor illnesses and to treat injuries. First aid parties were formed, which involved groups of volunteers, trained by the British Red Cross, the St Andrew’s Ambulance Corps and the St John Ambulance Brigade, or by local councils. First aid parties went directly to sites of new bombing and dealt with minor casualties on the spot, helping to ease the strain on the hospitals. Some members of the first aid parties helped as stretcher bearers, taking casualties to ambulances, first aid posts or hospi
tals. First aid posts cared for the victims of air raids and blackout accidents (of which there were many) usually for those who were well enough to return home, so every first aid post had at least one trained medical officer or doctor and one trained nurse. First aid posts were usually set up in specially adapted buildings, air raid shelters or Underground stations while some operated from mobile units. Some Boots stores were also used as first aid posts. Casualties going to first aid posts moved through three different sections: one where they were received and their problem assessed; a second for receiving treatment and a third where they could rest before being sent home or to hospital. One particular consequence of the Blitz was infection caused by the close proximity of so many people in confined communal shelters, and coughs caused by the damp. First aid posts were often inundated with sufferers of these debilitating infections. During the Blitz, several companies produced “ARP first aid kits” to help civilians cope with minor injuries. Used by Air Raid Wardens and families, they usually contained plasters, triangular bandages, gauze bandages, anti-gas ointment, sterilised dressings, an alcoholic solution of iodine, cotton wool, safety pins, splints, smelling salts (sal volatile), eye drops and a small first aid instruction book. In 101 Things to Do in Wartime advice on treating wounds, shock and burns was given: