122. Kautsky, Teufel, 144. More generally, see Peukert, Nazi Germany, 198–99; Noakes, Pridham, Nazism, vol. 2, 574; Moore, “Popular Opinion,” 207–208.
123. “Konzentrationslager Dachau,” Illustrierter Beobachter, December 3, 1936, NCC, doc. 270. See also Moore, “Popular Opinion,” 184–87; Gray, About Face. On the staging of photos for the article about Dachau, see Deutschland-Berichte, vol. 4, 694.
124. Peukert, “Alltag,” 56. For the persistence of crime under the Nazis, see Wachsmann, Prisons, 69–70, 198, 221–22.
125. Gellately, Backing, 97–98; Moore, “Popular Opinion,” 209; Kershaw, Popular Opinion, 74. For isolated press reports, Ayaß, “Asoziale,” 157, 164–65.
126. Deutschland-Berichte, vol. 2, 372; Klemperer, Zeugnis, vol. 1, 443.
127. Neurath, Gesellschaft, 25–26; Christ, “Wehrmachtsoldaten,” 819; Steinbacher, Dachau, 151–52.
128. See also Moore, “Popular Opinion,” 235, 239.
129. For media reports, see Milton, “Konzentrationslager,” 137–38; Moore, “Popular Opinion,” 203–204. For orders to scale back reports, see NCC, docs. 267 and 271. For occasional reminders, see NCC, docs. 266, 270, 274.
130. Quote in instruction to the German press, December 11, 1936, NCC, doc. 271.
131. For example, see ITS, ARCH/HIST/KL Lichtenburg 2, Bl. 104–15: Befehlsblatt SS-TV/IKL, April 1, 1937.
132. NAL, FO 371/18882, Bl. 386–90: Appendix A, Visit to Dachau, July 31, 1935, quote on 390.
133. Manchester Guardian, reader’s letter, April 7, 1936, NCC, doc. 281.
134. Milton, “Konzentrationslager,” passim; Drobisch and Wieland, System, 240–48.
135. Hett, Crossing, 228–34; Wünschmann, “Jewish prisoners,” 41.
136. Quotes in Buck, “Ossietzky,” 23–27, p. 26; report by C. Burckhardt, November 1935, NCC, doc. 279. See also Kraiker and Suhr, Ossietzky, 106–26.
137. Moore, “Popular Opinion,” 177–78, quote on 178.
138. Milton, “Konzentrationslager,” 140.
139. Evans, Third Reich in Power, 220–32; Gruchmann, Justiz, 77–78; Fröhlich, Tagebücher, I/5, March 3, 1938. The Berlin Special Court convicted Niemöller of lesser charges that would not have resulted in further detention.
140. IfZ, MA 312, Rede bei der SS Gruppenführerbesprechung, November 8, 1938.
141. Himmler speech at a Wehrmacht course, January 15–23, 1937, IMT, vol. 29, ND: 1992(A)-PS, especially pages 231–32; Kaienburg, Wirtschaftskomplex, 37–38, 51, 56, 197.
142. Kaienburg, Wirtschaftskomplex, 37–38. Previously, historians generally dated this development to the late 1930s.
143. Kaienburg, Wirtschaftskomplex, 38, 56–57, 62–63, 141–46, 169–77, 197–98; Dillon, “Dachau,” 85, 162; Wachsmann, “Dynamics,” 33; Merkl, General, 79; ITS, ARCH/HIST/KL Lichtenburg 2, Bl. 104–15: Befehlsblatt SS-TV/IKL, April 1, 1937; Hördler, “SS-Kaderschmiede,” 105–106.
144. Quote in IfZ, MA 312, Rede bei der SS Gruppenführerbesprechung, November 8, 1938. See also Wegner, Soldaten, 79–112; Kaienburg, Wirtschaftskomplex, 65.
145. Quote in BArchB, NS 19/1652, Bl. 5–15: Geheime Kommandosache, Erlass, August 17, 1938, Bl. 11. See also Wegner, Soldaten, 112–23; Merkl, General, 127–37; Dillon, “Dachau,” 186; Kaienburg, Wirtschaftskomplex, 66–68; Zámečník, Dachau, 101.
146. IfZ, F 13/6, Bl. 369–82: R. Höss, “Theodor Eicke,” November 1946, Bl. 377. See also Segev, Soldiers, 129–30.
147. Eicke quotes in Segev, Soldiers, 130–31.
148. For the numbers, which include the relatively small number of Commandant Staff officials, BArchB, R 2/12164, Bl. 25–28: Best to RMi Finanzen, November 26, 1938; Kaienburg, Wirtschaftskomplex, 71–72. Following Charles Sydnor, historians have often used a significantly higher number, putting the strength of the Death’s Head SS in mid-1939 at 22,033 men (Sydnor, Soldiers, 34). However, as Hermann Kaienburg points out (reference above), it is likely that this figure included Camp SS reservists, who were not stationed permanently at the KL but only underwent brief training courses in 1938–39.
149. Sydnor, Soldiers, 34.
150. Brockhaus, 1937, NCC, doc. 272.
151. “Sachsenhausen Song,” NCC, doc. 224.
152. For an introduction, see Morris and Rothman, Oxford History.
153. Sofsky, Ordnung, 194.
154. Wohlfeld, “Nohra,” 115; Ehret, “Schutzhaft,” 251; Lechner, “Kuhberg,” 94; Meyer and Roth, “Zentrale,” 205; Wachsmann, Prisons, 95–96; Langhoff, Moorsoldaten, 40–41, 61, 71.
155. Krause-Vilmar, Breitenau, 122–24; Rudorff, “‘Privatlager,’” 162–63; Seger, “Oranienburg,” 34; Diercks, “Fuhlsbüttel,” 280–81; Mayer-von Götz, Terror, 135–36.
156. Kienle, “Heuberg,” 54. See also Rudorff, “‘Privatlager,’” 163.
157. Special camp order by Eicke, August 1, 1934, NCC, doc. 149.
158. Quote in Kogon, Theory, 27. See also Jahn, Buchenwald!, 42–45; Stein, Juden, 10–12; OdT, vol. 3, 327–29; NCC, doc. 88. For death rates, see BwA, Totenbuch; AS, Totenbuch.
159. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 159–72, 356, 1017.
160. Naujoks, Leben, 36.
161. Ecker, “Hölle,” 35; Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 114–29; DaA, Nr. 7566, K. Schecher, “Rückblick auf Dachau,” n.d., 74.
162. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 248–49.
163. Quotes in BArchB (ehem. BDC), SSO Pohl, Oswald, 30.6.1892, Lebenslauf, 1932; ibid., Pohl to Himmler, May 24, 1933. More generally, see Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 32–37, 45; testimony O. Pohl, June 3, 1946, in Mendelsohn, Holocaust, vol. 17, 35–38.
164. Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 45–69, 76–91, 148–52; Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 107–113, 403–405; IfZ, F 13/6, Bl. 343–54: R. Höss, “Oswald Pohl,” November 1946.
165. Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 40–44.
166. Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 46–48, 69–75, 99–103; Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 123–27; IfZ, F 13/6, Bl. 343–54: R. Höss, “Oswald Pohl,” November 1946; StANü, EE by H. Karl, June 21, 1947, p. 4, ND: NO-4007.
167. IfZ, F 13/6, Bl. 343–54: R. Höss, “Oswald Pohl,” November 1946, quote on 346. See also Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 69.
168. For example, see Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 75.
169. BArchB, NS 19/1792, Bl. 226: Minutenprogramm für den 25.4.1939; ibid., Film 44564, Vernehmung O. Pohl, January 6, 1947, Bl. 6, 9; extracts of testimony of defendant Pohl, 1947, TWC, vol. 5, 559; IfZ, F 13/6, Bl. 343–54: R. Höss, “Oswald Pohl,” November 1946; ibid., Bl. 369–82: R. Höss, “Theodor Eicke,” November 1946; StANü, EE by H. Karl, June 21, 1947, p. 4, ND: NO-4007. For one such clash, see NCC, doc. 133.
170. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 25, 356–57, 373–76, 1091. For a different interpretation, which sees Himmler’s initiative as primarily defensive (aimed at maintaining control over KL labor at a time of growing labor shortages in Germany), see Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 108–11. Historians recognized the significance of the shift in the SS economy early; Georg, Unternehmungen, 42; Billig, L’Hitlérisme, 289–90.
171. Quote in Pohl to Hamburg treasurer, September 13, 1938, NCC, doc. 141. See also BArchB, NS 19/1919, Bl. 4–5: Himmler to Hildebrandt, December 15, 1939; Naasner, SS-Wirtschaft, 255–56.
172. For example, see Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 434.
173. For this and the previous paragraph, see Jaskot, Architecture, 21–25, 36–37, 80–94; Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 455–58, 460–61, 603–609, 1018; OdT, vol. 3, 388–89; Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 111–19, 125; BArchB, Film 14428, Stabsamt, Besuchs-Vermerk, June 17, 1938.
174. For the trip, StANü, EE by H. Karl, June 21, 1947, pp. 6–7, ND: NO-4007, which dates it to May 1938. For the March dating, OdT, vol. 4, 18–19, 293.
175. OdT, vol. 4, 17–20, 293–94.
176. OdT, vol. 4, 19–22; KZ-Gedenkstätte Flossenbürg, Flossenbürg, 35.
177. OdT, vol. 4, 294, 298; Fabréguet, “Entwicklung,” 194.
178. OdT, vol. 4, 19, 21, 296, 298; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 93.
179. Police and SS also saw practical advantages of
setting up a KL in the recently annexed Austrian territory; OdT, vol. 4, 293.
180. Jaskot, Architecture, 126–35; OdT, vol. 4, 20, 29, 299.
181. OdT, vol. 4, 26; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 123. Initially, the police did not take prisoners directly to Flossenbürg and Mauthausen, but transferred them from other KL.
182. For the plans, BArchB, NS 3/415, Bl. 3: Verwaltungschef SS to Bauleitung Flossenbürg, April 5, 1939.
183. Stein, “Funktionswandel,” 169–70; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 27, 109–10; OdT, vol. 4, 22; Langhammer, “Verhaftungsaktion,” 69.
184. Ibel, “Il campo,” 235–36; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 109; OdT, vol. 4, 308, 315. It seems likely that there were numerous Gypsies among Mauthausen prisoners already in 1938; A. Hübsch, “Insel des Standrechts” (1961), 105–106.
185. In all, 105 “professional criminals” are known to have died in Flossenbürg and Mauthausen by the end of August 1939—compared to 82 known fatalities (January 1938–August 1939) in the three big camps for men; see note 111.
186. Quote in K. Wolff to H. Krebs, December 15, 1938, NCC, doc. 143. See also H. Krebs to Himmler, November 19, 1938, ibid., doc. 142.
187. USHMM, RG-11.001M.01, reel 17, 500–5–1, Bl. 98: Heydrich to RSHA et al., January 2, 1941.
188. Speech at a Wehrmacht course, January 15–23, 1937, NCC, doc. 83.
189. For other SS leaders, see Heydrich to Gürtner, June 28, 1938, NCC, doc. 131. Jewish prisoners, who ranked even lower than “professional criminals” in the SS hierarchy, would not have been numerous enough at the time to fill either of the new camps.
190. Siegert, “Flossenbürg,” 440–41.
191. ITS, ARCH/KL Flossenbürg, Indiv. Unterlagen Männer, Josef Kolacek, Bl. 12: KL Flossenbürg to RKPA, November 30, 1938 (my thanks to Christian Goeschel for these and other documents). For the transport on July 1, 1938, see OdT, vol. 4, 22.
192. Maršálek, Mauthausen, 27, 85; OdT, vol. 4, 21, 24–27, 301–303.
193. Recollections A. Gussak, 1958, NCC, doc. 198.
194. Maršálek, Mauthausen, 110; AM, Zugangslisten und Totenbücher (the figures for 1938 may not be complete). Of all the sixty-seven “asocials” known to have perished in Mauthausen until the outbreak of war, fifty-seven had arrived on the March 21, 1939 transport from Dachau; it is unknown why so many prisoners of this transport perished so quickly.
195. DaA, 9438, A. Hübsch, “Insel des Standrechts” (1961), 105–106; Fabréguet, “Entwicklung,” 196; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 123.
196. AGFl, Häftlingsdatenbank. The higher death rate in Mauthausen was linked in part to the unusually high mortality among prisoners who had arrived on the March 21, 1939 transport (see note 194, above).
197. ITS, ARCH/KL Flossenbürg, Indiv. Unterlagen Männer, Josef Kolacek.
198. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 647–51, 656; Allen, Business, 67–71.
199. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 647, 649–55; Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 65–67.
200. Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 46–47, 49–50, 54–57; AS, R 42/1, H. Gartsch, “Beiträge zum KZ Sachsenhausen, Klinkerwerk,” n.d., 4–5.
201. For a different view, stressing the similarities to other labor details in Sachsenhausen, see Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 77.
202. Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 47, 56, 64–65; AS, R 42/1, H. Gartsch, “Beiträge zum KZ Sachsenhausen, Klinkerwerk,” n.d., 4–5; Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 650; WL, P.III.h. 758, B. Landau, “Die Hölle von Sachsenhausen,” n.d., 27.
203. For suicides, see Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 58; AS, R 42/1, H. Gartsch, “Beiträge zum KZ Sachsenhausen, Klinkerwerk,” n.d., 5.
204. Naujoks, Leben, 111; Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 57–58; Schlaak, “Wetter,” 182.
205. AS, Totenbuch. The onset of the first period of prolonged frost in mid-December 1938 coincided with a sharp rise in the death rate.
206. Between December 1938 and March 1939, “asocial” prisoners made up eighty-two percent of all registered fatalities in Sachsenhausen; AS, Totenbuch. For “asocials” at the brick works, see Meyer, “Funktionalismus,” 85; Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 60.
207. LaB, A. Rep. 358–02, Nr. 7468, Bl. 5: Erklärung Hermann R., March 21, 1939. See also ibid., Bl. 1–2: StA Berlin, Vermerk, March 21, 1939.
208. For the Sachsenhausen SS, see Meyer, “Funktionalismus,” 84; Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 77.
209. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 655–56; Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 36–45; Allen, Business, 70–71; Khlevniuk, Gulag, 336.
210. Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 122.
211. Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 656–83, 762–63; Trouvé, “Klinkerwerk,” 79–98. The plant was still unfinished in 1943, having lost millions of Reichsmark. On SS managers during the war, with different emphases, see Allen, Business, 85–86; Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 159–67.
212. There are two confirmed deaths in Lichtenburg and four in Ravensbrück (during 1939); Hesse and Harder, Zeuginnen, 117–19; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 506.
213. For the mortality figures, see note 111.
214. According to largely accurate ITS figures, 388 Dachau prisoners died during the twenty months between January 1938 and August 1939 (the actual figure was closer to 415; DaA, Häftlingsdatenbank), compared to thirty-seven deaths over the preceding twenty months (May 1936 to December 1937); meanwhile, the average monthly prisoner population rose from 2,157 to 4,845. DaA, ITS, Vorläufige Ermittlung der Lagerstärke (1971).
215. Hahn, Grawitz, 155–59; Morsch and Ley, Medizin, 53–54, 78; Naujoks, Leben, 110.
216. Quote in LBIJMB, MF 425, L. Bendix, “Konzentrationslager Deutschland,” 1937–38, vol. 5, 21.
217. Special camp order by Eicke, August 1, 1934, NCC, doc. 149.
218. For example, see Poller, Arztschreiber, 89–90, 93–94, 98–102.
219. Morsch, “Formation,” 167–69, 172; Boehnert, “SS Officer Corps,” 116; Hahn, Grawitz, 163; Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 182–85; Naujoks, Leben, 107–109; Pukrop, “SS-Karrieren,” 76, 86. The Soviet authorities executed Ehrsam in 1947.
220. LBIJMB, MF 425, L. Bendix, “Konzentrationslager Deutschland,” 1937–38, vol. 5, 37–38, 63; Tuchel, Konzentrationslager, 287–88; Naujoks, Leben, 126–27.
221. See the case of Dr. Katz in Dachau (chapter 1).
222. NCC, doc. 186.
223. Naujoks, Leben, 105; Hahn, Grawitz, 159–60; Freund, Buchenwald!, 72.
224. Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 69; Poller, Arztschreiber, 59, 74, 77; Orth, SS, 45–46.
225. Schley, Nachbar, 64–66; Freund, Buchenwald!, 95–96; OdT, vol. 3, 325.
226. Quote in Freund, Buchenwald!, 84. See also Stein, Juden, 57–59.
227. DaA, Häftlingsdatenbank; ibid., ITS, Vorläufige Ermittlung der Lagerstärke (1971); BwA, Totenbuch; NMGB, Buchenwald, 698.
228. Between January 1938 and August 1939, 491 Jewish prisoners perished in Buchenwald, including Jews arrested as asocial or political opponents; BwA, Totenbuch.
229. Quote in Besprechung über die Judenfrage, November 12, 1938, IMT, vol. 28, 538, ND: 1816–PS. See also Steinweis, Kristallnacht.
230. For surveys, see Friedländer, Nazi Germany; Longerich, Holocaust, 29–130.
231. A first monograph on the topic is now forthcoming; Wünschmann, Before Auschwitz.
232. See also Matthäus, “Verfolgung,” 66–68.
233. Lagebericht Stapostelle Magdeburg, August 5, 1935, in Kulka and Jäckel, Juden, doc. 1018. Although the overall number of Jews dragged to the camps for “race defilement” in 1935 is unknown, it was not insignificant; in Breslau alone, the police sent twenty male Jewish “race defilers” to the KL during July; Stapostelle Regierungsbezirk Breslau, Bericht für Juli 1935, ibid., doc. 1007.
234. Quotes in BArchB, R 58/264, Bl. 161: Gestapa to Stapostellen, September 1935; Informationen des Gestapa, February 25, 1938, in Boberach, Regimekritik, doc. rk 1706. See also Matthäus, “Verfolgung,” 72. The Gestapo also arrested some men after terms of judicial imprisonment for “race defilement”; Wachsmann, Prisons, 180. More generally
, see Friedländer, Nazi Germany, 120–22, 137–43; Longerich, Holocaust, 54–61.
235. Longerich, Holocaust, 67–69, 105–107, 126–27.
236. IfZ, Fa 183/1, Bl. 336: Grauert to Landesregierungen, February 9, 1935; Bavarian Political Police decree, March 7, 1935, NCC, doc. 95.
237. Wünschmann, “Cementing,” 589–94; idem, “Jewish Prisoners,” 140–42. See also Matthäus, “Verfolgung,” 76; OdT, vol. 1, 95, 103. For the threat of lifelong detention, see also NCC, doc. 110. Such threats also served the wider aim, Hitler later acknowledged, of preventing other “asocial” émigrés from returning to Germany; Picker, Tischgespräche, 513–14.
238. Matthäus, “Verfolgung,” 68–77, quote on 80; OdT, vol. 1, 98.
239. Wünschmann, “Jewish Prisoners,” 65, 156–58. See also Morsch, “Formation,” 135.
240. Report of a Jewish “reimmigrant,” 1936, NCC, doc. 243; Lüerßen, “‘Wir,’” 204.
241. LaB, A Rep. 358–02, Nr. 1540, GStA Berlin to RJM, June 3, 1937. More generally, see Broszat, Kommandant, 166.
242. Quote in Kogon, Theory, 77. This was one of three official camp songs recognized by the Buchenwald commandant in summer 1939; Stein, Juden, 66. More generally, see Lüerßen, “‘Wir,’” 204–205.
243. NCC, doc. 243; Neurath, Gesellschaft, 115; Broszat, Kommandant, 169.
244. Quotes in Union, Strafvollzug, 29. For the use of the term “4711” in Esterwegen, Dachau, and Buchenwald, see Lüerßen, “‘Wir,’” 124, 204; Burkhard, Tanz, 61–62; Stein, Buchenwald, 78.
245. Quote in Morsch, “Formation,” 148. See also Naujoks, Leben, 40.
246. LG Bonn, Urteil, February 6, 1959, JNV, vol. 15, quote on 473. More generally, see Kogon, Theory, 83.
247. Figures in Wünschmann, “Jewish Prisoners,” 162.
248. Such Kapo posts were normally restricted to the supervision of other Jewish prisoners (Morsch, “Formation,” 149; Jahnke, “Eschen”), though there were exceptions (LBIJMB, MF 425, L. Bendix, “Konzentrationslager Deutschland,” 1937–38, vol. 4, 31).
249. Herz, “Frauenlager,” 179–80.
250. BArchB, R 58/264, Bl. 263: Politischer Polizeikommandeur to Politische Polizeien, August 1[8] 1936; Wünschmann, “Jewish Prisoners,” 141.
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