133. Stiller, “Zwangsgermanisierung,” 118.
134. For example, see BArchB, R 187/598, KL Buchenwald, KB 5/43, May 12, 1943.
135. Quote in BArchB, NS 4/Au 1, Meldung an die Lagerführung Birkenau, July 13, 1944. On dismissals, and on the further fate of SS Private Marschall (who was sent back to sentry duty as a disciplinary measure), see Hördler, “Ordnung,” 178–79. For SS appeals to comradeship, see Tuchel, “Wachmannschaften,” 148.
136. Leleu, Waffen-SS, 271–77.
137. Buggeln, Arbeit, 424; Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 269; Stiller, “Zwangsgermanisierung,” 121; Golczewski, “Kollaboration,” 180; Riedle, Angehörigen, 84–85.
138. BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 101: WVHA to LK, 10 July 1943; IfZ, F 13/6, Bl. 359–68: R. Höss, “Globocnik,” January 1947, Bl. 364–65.
139. For example, see Langbein, Menschen, 438–39.
140. Buggeln, Arbeit, 427–28.
141. WL, P.III.h. No. 228, Bericht E. Federn, n.d.; ibid., No. 418, E. Clemm, Erfahrungsbericht über Auschwitz, November 27, 1945.
142. For example, see Langbein, Menschen, 469–70.
143. Sprenger, Groß-Rosen, 211–12; BArchL, B 162/7999, Bl. 924: KL Gross-Rosen to WVHA-D, June 16, 1944; ibid., Bl. 925: KL Gross-Rosen to WVHA-D, August 26, 1944.
144. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 20–21, 124–25, 259–66, 273, 280–81, 486–87.
145. From early 1944, Pohl prevented commandants from punishing female guards with detention; StN, WVHA to LK, January 17, 1944, ND: NO-1549.
146. Broszat, Kommandant, 177.
147. NARA, RG 549, 000–50–11 Ravensbrück CC (Box 522), testimony of J. Langefeld, December 26 and 31, 1945; Broszat, Kommandant, 177–78; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 70–71; Heike, “Langefeld,” 13–14; Hördler, “SS-Kaderschmiede,” 119. More generally, see Schwartz, “Eigensinn.”
148. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 210–11, 240, 282–86. See also Tillion, Ravensbrück, 147; Schwarz, Frau, 170–76; Mühlenberg, SS-Helferinnenkorps, 322–25, 418–20.
149. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 439. See also ibid., 435–39; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 142; Kielar, Anus Mundi, 348–49.
150. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 218, 411–24, 441–50, 487–88.
151. For example, see YVA, Tr-10/1172, LG Düsseldorf, Urteil, June 30, 1981, pp. 238–39.
152. BArchL, B 162/5109, Bl. 1859–69: Protokoll Efim K., September 19, 1962; ibid., Bl. 1853–58: Protokoll Zelik G., November 5, 1962.
153. Quotes in BArchL, B 162/5109, Bl. 1854: Protokoll Zelik G., November 5, 1962; ibid., Nr. 5120, Bl. 2423: Vernehmungsniederschrift Sima S., October 14, 1965. See also ibid., Nr. 5117, Bl. 1670–75: Protokoll Zusman S., September 9, 1962; OdT, vol. 8, 133, 139, 172. Pannicke could not be traced after the war and was never prosecuted; ibid., 143.
154. Mühlhäuser, Eroberungen. See also Berger, Experten, 344–46; Sémelin, Säubern, 315–19; Weitz, Century, 227–33; Gourevitch, We Wish, 115.
155. Shik, “Sexual Abuse”; Amesberger et al., Gewalt, 142–46; Langbein, Menschen, 457–58. The suggestion that KL guards could rape with impunity (e.g., Hedgepeth and Saidel, “Introduction,” 9, n. 6) is incorrect. For the official SS ban on sexual relations with prisoners, see KB Nr. 5/43, February 18, 1943, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 224. There has been plenty of speculation about an illicit relationship between Rudolf Höss and a female Auschwitz prisoner, but the evidence is patchy; Sommer, KZ-Bordell, 205, 414 (n. 123).
156. Quote in Ambach and Köhler, Lublin-Majdanek, 202.
157. DAP, Aussage R. Böck, August 3, 1964, 14194.
158. Langbein, Menschen, 421.
159. For example, see Ambach and Köhler, Lublin-Majdanek, 151, 181.
160. Schmid, “Moll.”
161. Broszat, Kommandant, 197.
162. Quote in Kohlhagen, Bock, 87 (written in 1945). See also Langbein, Menschen, 474, 480–81; Dirks, “Verbrechen,” 168–69; Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 292–93.
163. Ambach and Köhler, Lublin-Majdanek, 96; Lasik, “Garrison,” 337. Such offers by superiors were not unprecedented during the Holocaust; Browning, Männer, 22, 105.
164. IfZ, F 13/8, Bl. 488–91: R. Höss, “Dr. Eduard Wirths,” November 1946; Lifton and Hackett, “Doctors,” 310–11; Lifton, Doctors, 384–414; Langbein, Menschen, 411–32; Beischl, Wirths, 93–113, 217–225, 229.
165. For parallels with German soldiers during the Nazi war of extermination, see Werner, “‘Hart.’”
166. Broszat, Kommandant, 197–201, quote on 198; Stangneth, Eichmann, quote on 359; Langbein, Menschen, 331, 363–64.
167. Langbein, Menschen, 473–74, 476–78.
168. For example, see Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 338–39.
169. Quotes in Kremer, “Tagebuch,” 213–14. See also Broad, “Erinnerungen,” 166, 176; Berger, Experten, 119, 197, 332–33.
170. Interrogation A. Hradil, August 13, 1963, in Friedler et al., Zeugen, 70.
171. BArchL, B 162/1124, Bl. 2288–2316: Volksgerichtshof Krakow, Urteil, September 5, 1946; BArchB (ehem. BDC), SSO, Göth, Amon, 11.12.1908.
172. Orth, SS, 202, 300.
173. The compound leaders were Karl Fritzsch, Hans Aumeier, Franz Johann Hofmann, and Franz Hössler; Lasik, “Organizational,” 154–55, 199–201. For Hofmann, see LG Hechingen, Urteil, March 18, 1966, JNV, vol. 23, 372.
174. BArchL, B 162/2985, Bl. 2032–34: Vernehmung Calelzon B., September 7, 1973. See also OdT, vol. 8, 65, 73, 83; Riedle, Angehörigen, 193–94.
175. LG Bonn, Urteil, February 6, 1959, JNV, vol. 15, 420; LG Cologne, Urteil, May 28, 1965, ibid., vol. 21, 87, 95; LG Munich, Urteil, December 22, 1969, ibid., vol. 33, 313; LG Ansbach, Urteil, April 11, 1961, ibid., vol. 17, 154.
176. Most prisoners in the protective custody compound moved on after a few months, either released or transferred to a harsher camp inside the German prewar borders. See OdT, vol. 7, 133–50; Stuldreher, “Konzentrationslager.”
177. Riedle, Angehörigen, 193; WL, P.III.h. No. 573, A. Lehmann, “Das Lager Vught,” n.d., pp. 6, 30.
178. Stuldreher, “Herzogenbusch,” quote on 327; LG Munich, Urteil, December 22, 1969, JNV, vol. 33, 313.
179. Orth, “Lagergesellschaft,” 127–28. His successor as commandant, Adam Grünewald, also lost his job, after ten female prisoners suffocated in a cell in January 1944. Despite a cover-up, their deaths became known locally, causing Rauter to step in once more. In March 1944, Grünewald was sentenced to forty-two months in prison by the SS and Police Court in Den Haag (The Hague); BArchB (ehem. BDC), SSO, Grünewald, Adam, 20.10.1902, Feldurteil, March 6, 1944.
180. Testimony of Zakis, in Ambach and Köhler, Lublin-Majdanek, 96–98, quote on 98.
181. Mallmann and Paul, “Sozialisation,” 15; Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 236–37.
182. Todorov, Facing, 158–61; Wagner, IG Auschwitz, 128.
183. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 89.
184. Broad, “Erinnerungen,” 178.
185. For example, see Welzer, Täter, 215–16.
186. Orth, “Höβ,” 55; Broszat, Kommandant, 43–45.
187. DAP, Aussage S. Baretzki, October 1, 1964, 19661–68.
188. USHMM, 1998.A.0247, reel 15, Bl. 184–93: statement H. Aumeier, December 15, 1947, Bl. 189. See also Broszat, Kommandant, 197; Himmler speech to generals, May 5, 1944, in Noakes and Pridham, Nazism, vol. 3, 618.
189. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 206–24, 229–35, 252–53, 333, 414.
190. Kagan, “Standesamt,” 148. See also DAP, 44709; NAL, HW 16/66, “II. Concentration Camps,” November 27, 1942.
191. NAL, WO 208/4661, statement H. Aumeier, July 25, 1945, p. 5.
192. For example, see Welzer, Täter, 202–203.
193. Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 327, 484, 489.
194. Kremer, “Tagebuch,” 211–29.
195. Quote in WL, P.III.h. No. 418, E. Clemm, Erfahrungsbericht über Auschwitz, November 27, 1945, p. 3.
196. Schwarz, Frau, 128–30; Lifton, Doctors, 309–11; Langbein, Menschen, 405–406. Delm
otte apparently shot himself in 1945 as he was about to be taken into Allied custody.
197. Broszat, Kommandant, 9, 174–75, 202, quotes on 201; BArchK, All. Proz. 6/97, Bl. 25; Langbein, Menschen, 351; testimony S. Dubiel, August 7, 1946, in Bezwińska and Czech, KL Auschwitz, 288–91. For Höss’s life in Auschwitz, see also Setkiewicz, Życie, 103–16.
198. KB Nr. 16/42, September 3, 1942, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 169; Rundschreiben, February 10, 1943, ibid., 220; Rundschreiben, April 19, 1943, ibid., 248; StB Nr. 11/44, April 4, 1944, ibid., 432; StB Nr. 19/44, July 14, 1944, ibid., 470; StB Nr. 30/44, December 11, 1944, ibid., 520. See also Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 188–89; Czech, Kalendarium, 296; Merziger, Satire, 148–49, 342–44; Bahro, SS-Sport. In 1944, the actor Johannes Riemann toured both Stutthof and Auschwitz (Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 426; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 186).
199. WL, P.III.h. No. 782, E. Zwart, “Incidents in Birkenau,” n.d. (before February 1958), pp. 5–6. See also Langbein, Menschen, 435–37; WL, P.III.h. No. 1174a, LG Frankfurt, Vernehmung R. Kagan, December 8–10, 1959, p. 7; Fackler, “‘Lagers Stimme,’” 484–89; Gilbert, Music, 175–90. Memoirs of prisoners from the Birkenau orchestra include Fénelon, Musicians; Lasker-Wallfisch, Inherit; Menasche, Birkenau.
200. KB Nr. 5/41, April 18, 1941, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 31; StB Nr. 7/44, February 14, 1944, ibid., 406; Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 189; Dirks, “Verbrechen,” 150–51, 163–64.
201. There were also brothels for Ukrainian guards at some KL deeper inside the Reich (these guards were banned from municipal German brothels); some women abused here were KL prisoners. See Sommer, KZ-Bordell, 44–47, 95–97, 440 (n. 5); Vossler, Propaganda, 351.
202. Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 183–84, 205–40, 242–45. See also Dwork and Van Pelt, Auschwitz, passim; Dirks, “Verbrechen,” 163; Wagner, IG Auschwitz, 73; KB Nr. 5/41, April 18, 1941, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 31.
203. Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 184–86; Schwarz, Frau, 115–19, 150, 158–60. See also StB Nr. 9/43, April 10, 1943, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 242; StB Nr. 12/43, April 15, 1943, ibid., 245–46; StB Nr. 33/43, August 21, 1943, ibid., 328–29.
204. Dirks, “Verbrechen,” 154–55, 165–66; Schwarz, Frau, 118–19; Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 185–86; Langbein, Menschen, 511; KB Nr. 10/41, May 28, 1941, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 43. Women in the service of the Camp SS were mostly unmarried.
205. Lifton, Doctors, 395–99, quote on 398; Schwarz, Frau, 102, 168–69.
206. BArchB, NS 3/391, Bl. 4–22: Aufgabengebiete in einem KL, n.d. (1942), Bl. 7; KB Nr. 8/42, April 29, 1942, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 130.
207. Schwarz, Frau, 141–42.
208. For example, see Van Pelt, Case, 238; BArchB, NS 4/Sa 2, Bl. 10–12: KL Sachsenhausen, Tatbericht, June 18, 1942.
209. Testimony S. Dubiel, August 7, 1946, in Bezwińska and Czech, KL Auschwitz, quote on 290; Langbein, Menschen, 353.
210. StB Nr. 7/43, March 30, 1943, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 239; StB Nr. 9/44, March 8, 1944, ibid., 420; StB Nr. 30/44, December 11, 1944, ibid., 519–20.
211. Affidavit R. Höss, April 5, 1946, IMT, vol. 33, 275–79, ND: 3868–PS, p. 278; Schwarz, Frau, 151.
212. For example, see KB Nr. 25/43, June 11, 1943, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 292.
213. StB Nr. 25/43, July 12, 1943, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 306. See also Langbein, Menschen, 516; Dirks, “Verbrechen,” 166–68; Schwarz, Frau, 124; DAP, Vernehmung E. Bednarek, November 29, 1960, 3130.
214. Schwarz, Frau, 103, 146–47, 151–52, 279–80.
215. Quote in Segev, Soldiers, 195.
216. Testimony S. Dubiel, August 7, 1946, in Bezwińska and Czech, KL Auschwitz, 288–91; Schwarz, Frau, 142; Langbein, Menschen, 352; Strzelecki, “Plundering,” 168.
217. Longerich, Himmler. More generally on Nazism and morality, see Welzer, Täter, 18–75; Koonz, Conscience; Weikart, Ethic.
218. See contribution by Dan Diner in Frei and Kantsteiner, Holocaust, 103–104.
219. Rede bei der SS Gruppenführertagung in Posen, October 4, 1943, IMT, vol. 29, ND: 1919–PS, quotes on 145–46; IfZ, F 37/5, Himmler diary, October 4, 1943. More generally, see Orth, “‘Anständigkeit.’”
220. Rede bei der SS Gruppenführertagung in Posen, October 4, 1943, IMT, vol. 29, ND: 1919–PS, quotes on 146. An audio recording of the speech is archived at NARA.
221. Bajohr, Parvenüs, 96–97, 162–63, quote on 162; Perz and Sandkühler, “Auschwitz,” 296; Scheffler, “Praxis,” 232–34; BArchB, NS 19/1916, Bl. 124–31: Kriminalstatistik für das 1. Vierteljahr 1943. More generally, see Dean, Robbing.
222. Strzelecki, “Plundering,” 147–48; K. E. Möckel, “Aktion ‘R,’” July 7, 1947, extract in Perz and Sandkühler, “Auschwitz,” 304; “Bericht Vrba,” 229.
223. Strzelecki, “Plundering,” 149; idem, “Utilization,” 404–406, 408–409; Czech, Kalendarium, 790. For the rumors about soap, see Strzelecki, “Utilization,” 415; Neander, “‘Seife.’”
224. USHMM, RG-11.001M.03, reel 37, folder 275, Zentralbauleitung Auschwitz to WVHA-C, June 9, 1942; ibid., reel 19, folder 19, Besichtigung durch SS Obergruppenführer Pohl am 23.9.1942; Strzelecki, “Plundering,” 149–52; Broszat, Kommandant, 253.
225. K. Hart, I Am Alive (London, 1961), extract in Adler et al., Auschwitz, 82–84, quote on 82. See also Strzelecki, “Plundering,” 137–38, 151; K. E. Möckel, “Aktion ‘R,’” July 7, 1947, extract in Perz and Sandkühler, “Auschwitz,” 304–305; testimony K. Morla, n.d., cited in ibid., 297–98.
226. YVA, Globocnik to Himmler, January 5, 1944, ND: 4024–PS, pp. 11–12; K. E. Möckel, “Aktion ‘R,’” July 7, 1947, extract in Perz and Sandkühler, “Auschwitz,” 305; Broszat, Kommandant, 254.
227. Strzelecki, “Utilization,” 407–12; WVHA to LK, January 4, 1943, in Schnabel, Macht, 262–63.
228. Frank to SS Administration in Lublin and Auschwitz, September 26, 1942, TWC, vol. 5, 695–97, ND: NO-724; Pohl to Himmler’s office, February 6, 1943, ibid., 699–703, ND: NO-1257; YVA, Globocnik to Himmler, January 5, 1944, ND: 4024–PS, p. 13. See also Lumans, Auxiliaries, especially page 203.
229. Judgment U.S. Military Tribunal II, November 3, 1947, TWC, vol. 5, 958–1064, quote on 988.
230. Quotes in Hildebrandt to Himmler, n.d. (1943), in Schnabel, Macht, 248; BArchK, All. Proz. 6/12, Bl. 53. See also Pohl to Himmler, November 29, 1944, in ibid., 249; BArchB, Film 44840, Vernehmung G. Maurer, March 21, 1947, pp. 1–4; StN, EE by K. Sommer, January 22, 1947, ND: NO-1578, pp. 2–3; de Rudder, “Zwangsarbeit,” 221–25; NAL, HW 16/21, GPD Nr. 3, WVHA-D to KL Auschwitz, October 22, 1942; ibid., HW 16/22, GPD Nr. 3, WVHA-D to KL Auschwitz, December 18, 1942.
231. Testimony O. Pohl, June 3, 1946, in NCA, supplement B, 1582–85; K. E. Möckel, “Aktion ‘R,’” July 7, 1947, extract in Perz and Sandkühler, “Auschwitz,” 306; ibid., 291; BArchB, Film 44563, Vernehmung O. Pohl, September 26, 1946, 57–60. Having been suspected of dishonesty before, Globocnik was evidently at pains to demonstrate his integrity.
232. Hayes, Cooperation, esp. 181–84. By no means all deliveries of precious metals were sent for processing; dozens of caches were recovered in their original state by the U.S. army in 1945.
233. WVHA-A to Himmler, October 8, 1942, in Tuchel, Inspektion, 151. See also Strzelecki, “Utilization,” 400.
234. Strzelecki puts the value of loot in Auschwitz alone at a minimum of hundreds of millions of Reichsmark; Strzelecki, “Plundering,” 169. More generally, see Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 1079.
235. For overall Nazi gains, see Aly, Volksstaat, 311–27; Dean, Robbing, 391–95.
236. Marszałek, Majdanek, 92; YVA, Globocnik to Himmler, January 5, 1944, ND: 4024–PS, p. 23.
237. Bajohr, Parvenüs, 189–90.
238. Wagner, Volksgemeinschaft, 316–29.
239. Gross, Golden Harvest.
240. Arad, Belzec, 92, quote on 161–62; Bajohr,
Parvenüs, 120–36.
241. Kautsky, Teufel, 94.
242. For example, see Langbein, Menschen, 442.
243. Quote in Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 254. See also Perz and Sandkühler, “Auschwitz,” 295–97; Kilian, “‘Handlungsräume,’” 135–36; Broad, “Erinnerungen,” 176; DAP, Urteil LG Frankfurt August 19–20, 1965, 37195–96.
244. OdT, vol. 8, 262; Paserman, “Bericht,” 154.
245. Greif, Wir weinten, 277–78. For envy of the Canada Commando, see also BoA, testimony of G. Kaldore, August 31, 1946.
246. Rózsa, “‘Solange,’” 133; Kautsky, Teufel, 253.
247. Quote in Harshav, Last Days, 696, diary entry, July 19, 1944.
248. Levi, If, 84–85, quote on 84; Wagner, IG Auschwitz, 138–39.
249. Lenard, “Flucht,” 145.
250. Kielar, Anus Mundi, 131; Ambach and Köhler, Lublin-Majdanek, 149, 160, 190.
251. Testimony O. Wolken, 1945, in Adler et al., Auschwitz, 120.
252. Maršálek, Mauthausen, 53; Marszałek, Majdanek, 137; BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 167–254: W. Neff, “Recht oder Unrecht,” n.d., Bl. 219–20; OdT, vol. 8, 261; NAL, WO 235/309, Aussage L. Ramdohr, August 21, 1946, pp. 1–2.
253. BArchB (ehem. BDC), SSO, Aumeier, Hans, 20.8.1906, KL Auschwitz, Aktenvermerk, November 30, 1943; ibid., Vernehmungsniederschrift, January 17, 1944.
254. Langbein, Menschen, 457–58; Schwarz, Frau, 167–68; OdT, vol. 6, 196; Citroen and Starzyńska, Auschwitz, 162–63; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 144; Broad, “Erinnerungen,” 168.
255. Orth, “Kommandanten,” 760.
256. BArchB, NS 4/Sa 2, Bl. 22–26: K. Wendland to Gestapo, April 1942, quote on 23; ibid., Bl. 10–12: KL Sachsenhausen, Tatbericht, June 18, 1942; ibid., Bl. 14–20: RKPA, Vernehmung H. Loritz, June 20, 1942; AdsD, KE, E. Büge, Bericht, n.d. (1945–46), 214–15.
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