108. Perz, “Wehrmacht,” 70–80; Buggeln, Arbeit, 392–93. See also IfZ, Fa 127/2, Bl. 276: Himmler to Pohl et al., May 11, 1944; BArchB (ehem. BDC), SSO, Harbaum, August, 25.3.1913, Bl. 119: R. Glücks, Personal-Antrag, April 24, 1944; Glauning, Entgrenzung, 167–68; Wagner, Produktion, 332, 336–37; Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 212–13; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 176. I am using the term “soldier” broadly, to encompass seamen and airmen.
109. Glauning, Entgrenzung, 168–69, 173, 176; Buggeln, Arbeit, 436; Wagner, Produktion, 332; Riedle, Angehörigen, 47.
110. Wagner, Produktion, 335–38, prisoner quote on 335; AGN, Ng. 7.6., H. Behncke to his family, September 1, 1944, quote on 35. For Vierke’s case, see USHMM, RG-11.001M.20, reel 89, folder 127.
111. Historians still debate to what extent women drafted as KL guards could refuse to serve in these positions; Mailänder Koslov, Gewalt, 119–25, 133–35. For the figures, see IfZ, Fa 183, Bl. 6–7, n.d.
112. Strebel, Ravensbrück, 102; Buggeln, Arbeit, 462; Perz, “Wehrmacht,” 76; Oppel, “Eßmann,” 87.
113. Hördler, “Ordnung,” 9, 161; Buggeln, Arbeit, 393, 667; Orth, SS, 54.
114. Bornemann, Geheimprojekt, 190–98, Pauler quotes on 197, 192; AGN, Ng. 7.6.; Heike, “Lagerverwaltung,” 235.
115. Bornemann, Geheimprojekt, Pauler quote on 198; AGN, Ng. 7.6., H. Behncke to his wife, n.d., quote on 66; BArchB, Film 44563, Vernehmung O. Pohl, July 15, 1946; Perz, “Wehrmacht,” 81; Wagner, Produktion, 321, 334–36; Hördler, “Wehrmacht,” 14; Buggeln, Arbeit, 433.
116. Glücks to LK, December 18, 1944, in Wagner, Mittelbau-Dora, 109. See also Glauning, Entgrenzung, 167; Wagner, Produktion, 335–36, 345. For SS complaints about female guards, see Lasik, “SS Garrison,” 290; Sprenger, “Aufseherinnen,” 27; Schwarz, “Frauen,” 807.
117. Hördler, “Ordnung,” 23, 34–35, 181–90; idem, “Wehrmacht,” 17–18; Buggeln, “Schulung.”
118. Perz, “Wehrmacht,” 82; Wagner, Produktion, 324; Fings, Krieg, 82–83 (on police reservists). For a more skeptical note, see Hördler, “Wehrmacht,” 18–19.
119. Quote in Jansen, “Zwangsarbeit,” 93.
120. BArchL, B 162/5109, Bl. 1859–69: Erklärung Efim K., September 19, 1962, quote on 1865. For the correct spelling of the camp, see OdT, vol. 8, 151 (n. 2). Several other Jewish prisoners also recalled acts of kindness by German soldiers; BArchL, B 162/2985, Bl. 2032–34: Vernehmung Calelzon B., September 7, 1973; BoA, testimony G. Kaldore, August 31, 1946; Eichhorn, “Sabbath,” 209–10.
121. For this and the previous two paragraphs, see Buggeln, Arbeit, 395–96, 399, 404–407, 417–19, 437–38, 442, 482–83, 667; idem, “Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen,” 50; Wagner, Produktion, 343–44, Pauler quote on 339; AGN, Ng. 7.6., H. Behncke to his wife, January 28 and April 2, 1945, quotes on 167 and 260. See also Schalm, Überleben, 153–55; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 178; OdT, vol. 4, 51; Fröbe, “Mineralölindustrie,” 175.
122. Buggeln, Arbeit, 142–43, quote on 143; Freund, “Mauthausen,” 267–68; Fröbe, “Arbeitseinsatz,” 365–67; idem, “KZ-Häftlinge,” 656–57; Wagner, Produktion, 362–71, 380, 476, 487, 500; OdT, vol. 5, 477–79.
123. For Gandersheim, see Antelme, Menschengeschlecht, quotes on 115; Megargee, Encyclopedia, vol. 1/A, 346–48; OdT, vol. 3, 374–76. More generally, see Buggeln, Arbeit, 17, 156, 213, 224–25, 283–95, 328.
124. Wagner, Produktion, 366–67, 469, 483, 493–97.
125. There was a second, much smaller satellite camp in town (Ellrich-Bürgergarten); OdT, vol. 7, 301.
126. Sellier, Dora, quote on 201; Wagner, Produktion, 478–79, 487–89; idem, Ellrich, 56, 59–66.
127. Tauzin, 1945, cited in Sellier, Dora, 208; Wagner, Produktion, 382–83, 479; idem, Ellrich, 90–96.
128. Quotes in YVA, O 15 E/1761, Protokoll V. Jakubovics, July 9, 1945; Bornemann, Geheimprojekt, 191. See also Wagner, Produktion, 382, 470–71, 476–77, 487; idem, Ellrich, 59, 96–98; Sellier, Dora, 210–12.
129. NARA, M-1079, roll 11, Aussage O. Brinkmann, June 30, 1947, quote on Bl. 1069; Wagner, Ellrich, 118–19, 127–36; Bornemann, Geheimprojekt, 188; JVL, DJAO, RaR, United States v. Andrea, April 15, 1948, 46–50.
130. Quotes in YVA, O 15 E/1761, Protokoll V. Jakubovics, July 9, 1945; Wagner, Ellrich, 89. See also ibid., 100, 104–109; idem, Produktion, 314, 382, 477, 488.
131. The more pressing the completion of a project, the worse the conditions; Buggeln, Arbeit, 239–40, 243, 256–60.
132. YVA, O 15 E/647, Protokoll J. Jakobovics, July 2, 1945. See also OdT, vol. 6, 286–87, 457–59.
133. Herbert, “Arbeit.” For the term, see Burleigh and Wippermann, Racial State.
134. Orth, System, 240; Zimmermann, “Arbeit,” 747.
135. Above all, see the pioneering work by Jens-Christian Wagner (Produktion). More recently, see Buggeln, Arbeit, 282; Kranebitter, “Zahlen,” 148.
136. Wagner, Produktion, 402, quote on 579; idem, Ellrich, 110–11; idem, “Sinti.”
137. Buggeln, Arbeit, 333.
138. Buggeln, Arbeit, 241, 245.
139. Renouard, Hölle, 39; Wagner, Produktion, 403, 579; idem, Ellrich, 112; Buggeln, Arbeit, 245, 497–98, 550.
140. Quote in Buggeln, Arbeit, 314 (n. 104). For Jews in mixed satellite camps, see Freund, “Häftlingskategorien,” 880; idem, Toten, 380–83; Wagner, Produktion, 405–407.
141. Raim, Dachauer, 154–55, 192–246; idem, “KZ-Außenlagerkomplexe.” See also Ervin-Deutsch, “Nachtschicht”; YIVO, RG 294.1, MK 488, series 20, folder 549, Bl. 718–27: testimony of S. Heller, July 10, 1945; YVA, O 15 E/534, protokoll S. Fülöp, July 1, 1945, quote on 2; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 251; LG Augsburg, Urteil, June 28, 1950, JNV, vol. 6, 653–60. Other lethal construction camps (primarily) for Jews included Magdeburg-Rothensee, the Riese complex, Hanover-Ahlem, and Stempeda.
142. Buggeln, Arbeit, 216, 251, 296, 329–30; Wagner, Produktion, 370, 407–408.
143. Kupfer-Koberwitz, Tagebücher, 356.
144. Schalm, Überleben, 205.
145. Strebel, Ravensbrück, 426–27; Perz, “Wehrmacht,” 78; Fröbe, “KZ-Häftlinge,” 667–68.
146. Strebel, Ravensbrück, 428–29, 441–43; Hördler, “Ordnung,” 289–92, 341.
147. Buggeln, Arbeit, 217, 317–18; Rudorff, Frauen, 386.
148. While sewing and cooking could bring obvious benefits, so could carpentry and similar trades (more male preserves). Also, since many male prisoners had served in the army, they may have become more easily accustomed to the military regimen inside the KL; Buggeln, Gewalt, 513–15; Debski, Battlefield, 82–83.
149. For the debate on this issue, see Buggeln, Arbeit, 280, 508, 513; Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 315. Like Laurence Langer, I am not convinced that survivor testimonies show a significant gendered difference in the levels of mutual support. Even if this was the case, however, it could simply be a reflection of male survivors’ reluctance to talk about their reliance on emotional support from other men.
150. Strebel, Ravensbrück, 522; Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 134, 315–16; Buggeln, Arbeit, 226.
151. Debski, Battlefield, 84; Rudorff, Frauen, 390; Buggeln, Arbeit, 278, 280–81, 394–95, 467–68; idem, System, 126–27. See also chapter 10, below.
152. Satellite camps for women were still normally led by a male camp leader, and the sentries in the Guard Troop were usually male, too; Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 190, 214, 311; Buggeln, Arbeit, 464.
153. Pfingsten and Füllberg-Stolberg, “Frauen,” 921; Buggeln, Arbeit, 466–67; Sprenger, “Aufseherinnen,” 29–30; Rudorff, Frauen, 389–90.
154. Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 215–16, 306–307, 312, 316, quote on 216.
155. For Neuengamme, see Buggeln, Arbeit, 333. The term “race” is used here in the way it was ascribed by the SS authorities.
156. Raim, Dachauer, 193–94, 200; idem, “KZ-Außenlagerkomplexe,” 75–76; Schalm, Überleben, 195–96; YIVO, RG 294.1, MK 488, series 20, folder 549, Bl. 718–27: testimony Dr. S. Heller, July 10, 1945.
157. For Jewish women
in production, see Zimmermann, “Arbeit,” 746–47.
158. Rudorff, Frauen, 386–91.
159. Seidel, “Frauen,” 155–56; OdT, vol. 3, 495–500.
160. Rózsa, “Solange,” 98, 121, 125, 133, 141, 144, 157–61, 225, quotes on 107, 188; Jochem, “Bedingungen,” 83–91; OdT, vol. 4, 213–16.
161. Buggeln, Arbeit, 275; Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 95; OdT, vol. 6, 301–303, 410–12.
162. Fröhlich, Tagebücher, II/12, April 27, 1944, p. 202.
163. Browning, Remembering, 153–54. See also the case of Jewish “forgers” in Sachsenhausen and “hostages” in Bergen-Belsen (chapter 6, above).
164. See also Buggeln, Arbeit, 658.
165. Rózsa, “Solange,” 159.
166. Wagner, Produktion, 534–55, Güntsche quote on 535.
167. Steinbacher, Dachau, quote on 184; Zámečník, “Aufzeichnungen,” 210–11.
168. ITS, 1.1.6.0, folder 55, KL Dachau, Auszug aus der DV der KL Bewachung, n.d. (1942?).
169. Some of these satellite camps had already emerged before the war; for example, see OdT, vol. 3, 388–92, 587–90.
170. G. Meier to LK Flossenbürg, June 18, 1942, in KZ-Gedenkstätte Flossenbürg, Flossenbürg, quote on 171; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 207; Wachsmann, Prisons, 95. In 1942, the charge was three Reichsmark per male prisoner per day, and two Reichsmark per female prisoner; IfZ, WVHA to Kommandanturen, August 17, 1942, ND: PS-3685.
171. Schley, Nachbar, 71–75.
172. Bringmann, Neuengamme, quote on 43; Fings, Krieg, 161–62. For prisoner uniforms, see Schmidt, “Geschichte und Symbolik,” 292–93.
173. Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 193.
174. E. Mercker, “Granitbrüche Flossenbürg” (1941), oil on canvas, displayed in the exhibition Histories in Conflict, Haus der Kunst, Munich, June 2012–January 2013. The Camp SS also still conducted staged visits for state and party officials, as well as for foreign dignitaries; for example, see Wein, “Krankenrevier.”
175. Fröhlich, Tagebücher, II/4, June 13, 1942, pp. 510–18.
176. Schley, Nachbar, 108–109; Horwitz, Shadow, 93, 109; Wagner, Produktion, 157–58; Glauning, Entgrenzung, 332–33; Marcuse, Legacies.
177. Dörner, Die Deutschen, 606.
178. Kremer, “Tagebuch,” September 2, 1942, 211.
179. Neitzel, Abgehört, 283; Tyas, “Intelligence,” 12.
180. Czech, Kalendarium, 380; NAL, HW 16/23, GPD Nr 3, Glücks to Höss, January 22, 1943. More generally, see Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 249–52.
181. Dörner, Die Deutschen, 325; Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 247–49; Frei, 1945, 156–57; Broszat, Kommandant, 247.
182. Klemperer, Zeugnis, 47, 268, 306, 313, 378, quote on 259.
183. Dörner, Die Deutschen, 398, 416, 605–608; Fritzsche, Life, 240, 262–64.
184. BArchB, NS 4/Bu 31, Bl. 15: WVHA to LK, July 11, 1942; ibid., NS 3/426, Bl. 40: WVHA-D to LK, February 25, 1943.
185. BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 76: Himmler to Glücks, May 26, 1943; Grotum, Archiv, 219.
186. RSHA circular, October 26, 1939, in NCA, vol. 1, 962.
187. Dörner, Die Deutschen, 39–40, 355–56, quote on 355; LG Cologne, Urteil, April 20, 1970, JNV, vol. 33, 646.
188. BArchB, NS 3/391, Bl. 4–22: Aufgabengebiete in einem KL, n.d. (1942), Bl. 8; ibid., NS 4/Bu 31, Bl. 19: Verhalten beim Briefe-Schreiben, n.d.; ibid., NS 4/Na 6, Bl. 24: WVHA to LK, April 12, 1943; Wagner, Produktion, 463. Among the barred groups were Soviet POWs and so-called NN prisoners; Lasik, “Organizational,” 168. For a ban on letters by Jewish inmates in summer 1944, see Sprenger, Groβ-Rosen, 165.
189. C. Herman to his wife and daughter, November 6, 1944, in SMAB, Inmitten, quote on 259. For other examples, see Bárta, “Tagebuch,” 50–51; S. Sosnowski to his wife, October 27, 1940, in Geehr, Letters, 44–45.
190. Quotes in Maršálek, Mauthausen, 50; A. Bala to J. Esztsadnika, July 1943, in Bacharach, Worte, 328.
191. J. Pogonowski to his family, April 21, 1943, in Piper, Briefe, 44–45.
192. IfZ, RSHA, AE, 2. Teil, Bl. 202: Runderlaß Chef Sipo und SD, October 24, 1939.
193. BArchB, NS 19/1570, Bl. 12–28: Inspekteur für Statistik, Endlösung der Judenfrage, Bl. 24.
194. OdT, vol. 3, 39; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 175.
195. Niethammer, Antifaschismus, 36 (n. 36); Roth, “‘Asozialen,’” 449; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 174–75; KZ-Gedenkstätte Flossenbürg, Flossenbürg, 46; Eisenblätter, “Grundlinien,” 167; August, “Sonderaktion,” 7, 42–46. None of the arrested Jewish professors from Krakow were freed.
196. BArchB, NS 3/391, Bl. 4–22: Aufgabengebiete in einem KL, n.d. (1942), Bl. 16–17; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 251; Weiss-Rüthel, Nacht, 175; Gostner, 1000 Tage, 169.
197. Glücks to Lagerärzte, December 28, 1942, in NMGB, Buchenwald, 257–58, figures for July to November 1942.
198. BArchB, NS 4/Bu 143, Schutzhaftlager-Rapport, November 6, 1943.
199. OdT, vol. 1, 163; Hett and Tuchel, “Reaktionen,” 382–83.
200. Klausch, Antifaschisten, 27–75.
201. Himmler quotes in “Dokumentation. Die Rede Himmlers,” 378; Himmler to Dirlewanger et al., February 19, 1944, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, document 299, p. 319. Other quotes in ITS, 1.1.6.0, folder 25, Wahrheit und Recht 2 (June 1946), doc. 82095211; Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 304. See also ibid., 302–305; Klausch, Antifaschisten, 68, 75–104, 120–21, 136–37, 398–400; Heger, Männer, 141.
202. Eberle, “‘Asoziale,’” quote on 266; Klausch, Antifaschisten, 105–21, 401.
203. Quote in Kupfer-Koberwitz, Tagebücher, 390. See also Klausch, Antifaschisten, 140–270, 327–96, 404–15; Wachsmann, Prisons, 263–69.
204. Rede vor Generälen, May 24, 1944, in Smith and Peterson, Geheimreden, 203.
205. Fabréguet, “Entwicklung,” 207, figure for March 1945.
206. Wagner, Produktion, 549.
207. Cited in Sellier, Dora, 137.
208. Kaienburg, “KZ Neuengamme,” 46; Wagner, IG Auschwitz, 119, 233; Wagner, Produktion, 379–80, 550–51.
209. Renouard, Hölle, 43–44, 163; Fröbe et al., “Nachkriegsgeschichte,” 577–78.
210. Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 304; Wysocki, “Häftlingsarbeit,” 58. On the oscillation between compliance and noncompliance, see Lüdtke, “Appeal,” 49.
211. Levi, If, 88.
212. Buggeln, Arbeit, 262–63, 618; Kielar, Anus Mundi, 382.
213. ITS, KL Auschwitz OCC2/35a, Ordner 57, Vernehmungsniederschrift, October 4, 1944.
214. Megargee, Encyclopedia, vol. 1/A, 718–20; ibid., vol. 1/B, 872–73; OdT, vol. 8, 289–94; ibid., vol. 6, 262–65. This case became famous through Thomas Keneally’s book Schindler’s Ark (London, 1982) and Steven Spielberg’s film Schindler’s List (1993).
215. Levi, If, 126.
216. Antelme, Menschengeschlecht, quotes on 69–70; Todorov, Facing, 243.
217. For background, see Wagner, Produktion, 560–62; Buggeln, Arbeit, 593–94, 610.
218. Füllberg-Stolberg, “Frauen,” quote on 328.
219. Mittelwerk GmbH, Umgang mit Häftlingen, December 30, 1943, in Wagner, Mittelbau-Dora, 120.
220. For example, see Kaienburg, “KZ Neuengamme,” 47.
221. BArchL, B 162/30170, Bl. 368: LK Sachsenhausen, Anordnung, February 2, 1942, underlined in the original. See also Wysocki, “Häftlingsarbeit,” 61.
222. Wagner, Produktion, 178–80, 503, 554; Fings, “Public Face,” 118.
223. Quotes in Kempowski, Haben, 117.
224. Horwitz, Shadow, 83–98, quote on 94; OdT, vol. 4, 416–17.
225. Glauning, Entgrenzung, 332–38, 346–52, quote on 336; Riexinger and Ernst, Vernichtung, 59, 67–68; Kaienburg, “KZ Neuengamme,” 49; Wagner, Produktion, 536–45; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 93; AGN, Ng. 7.6., H. Behncke to his family, September 30, 1944; ibid., E. Behncke to her family, November 25, 1944.
226. Bütow and Bindernagel, KZ, 9, 115, 175.
227. Calculation based on OdT, vol. 2, 396–450. For bo
mb-clearing squads, ibid., 421.
228. Fings, “Public Face,” quote on 117; Delbo, Auschwitz, 183–85.
229. Renouard, Hölle, 29; Kielar, Anus Mundi, 366; Riexinger and Ernst, Vernichtung, 60.
230. For example, see Zámečník, “Aufzeichnungen,” 233–34.
231. Ellger, Zwangsarbeit, 177, 294, quote on 306; Steinbacher, Dachau, 175–77; Horwitz, Shadow, 111; Raim, Dachauer, 270.
232. Bringmann, Neuengamme, 43; Glauning, Entgrenzung, 343–45.
233. Quote in Horwitz, Shadow, 114. See also ibid., 93; Wagner, Produktion, 560–61; Glauning, Entgrenzung, 345; Fings, “Public Face,” 118; Buggeln, Arbeit, 623.
234. Quote in Kirsten and Kirsten, Stimmen, 133. See also ibid., 306.
235. Horwitz, Shadow, 175–76.
236. Wagner, Produktion, 538–39, 547–49, 556–60; Schley, Nachbar, 109; OdT, vol. 6, 68.
237. Fings, “Public Face,” 118.
238. Quote in Zámečník, “Aufzeichnungen,” 226. See also Dörner, Deutschen, 321–22, 328; NAL, WO 208/3596, C.S.D.I.C., S.I.R. 727, Information from Lt. Marcinek, August 11, 1944.
239. BArchB, NS 19/4014, Bl. 158–204: Rede vor Generälen, June 21, 1944, quotes on 166.
240. “Dokumentation. Die Rede Himmlers,” 393; Kupfer-Koberwitz, Tagebücher, 346; Loeffel, “Sippenhaft”; Vermehren, Reise, 152–53.
241. German opposition leaflet (1941), in Kulka and Jäckel, Juden, doc. 3282; Goerdeler, “Ziel” (autumn 1941), 898; Hamerow, Road, 325.
242. For one example, see Steinbacher, “Musterstadt,” 315.
243. Raim, Dachauer, 269; Fings, “Public Face,” 118; Horwitz, Shadow, 93.
244. Quote in Kempowski, Haben, 108.
245. Kautsky, Teufel, 235–40. More generally, see Buggeln, Arbeit, 619.
246. WL, P.III.h. No. 198, F. Pagel, “Eines der Vielen Tausende[n] von Schicksalen,” autumn 1955; Wagner, IG Auschwitz, 89, 139. For the story of another British POW who is said to have briefly changed places with a Jewish prisoner in Monowitz, see Avey, Man.
247. Fings, Krieg, 220–28, 242–43, Maurer quote on 226, Knöller quote (from October 1944) on 242, underlined in the original; Klein, Jehovas, 129–30; Kogon, SS-Staat (1946), 336–37; Whatmore, “Exploring.”
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