livability and efficiency, 159–162
logic, understanding for possibilities, 176, 186–189, 194
Lord, Phil, 7–8
Manitoba Hydro, 157–162
March, James, 19, 32
Marshall, Bill, 108
Martin, Roger L., ix–xiii, xvi, 8, 139, 144, 175
Martin Prosperity Institute, 41
McCarthy, Jenny, 76
McEnroe, John, 147
McKee, Robert, 179
measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine, 76
mental models, 17–34
articulating, 65–70, 75–105
assumptions in, 71
awareness of and working around, 39–40
of cause and effect, 28–30
definition of, 19
denial of failure in, 29–30
examining, 65–66, 70–71
as filters, 18–19
flaws in, 19
generalizability of, 30–34
implicitness of, 19, 20–22
making observations fit into, 20–22
manipulation of, 23–26
mapping, 22, 23
in organizational decision making, 34–40
overconfidence in, 30
oversimplification in, 28–30
as reality, 19–20
stickiness of, 26–27
visualization and, 180–181
See also models
metacognition, 12, 43–48, 131–132
definition of, 43
explaining possibilities and, 178
practicing, 44
tools for, 46–47
value of, 216
methodology, 11–13, 63–74
translating anecdotes into, 63–65
Miller, Christopher, 7–8
Miller, George, 109
mind maps, 22, 23
mindset, 11–13, 15
fixed versus growth, 206–207
in tennis development models, 145–147
for testing and experimentation, 190–191
Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (Dweck), 206–207
minimum viable product concept, 184
mirror neurons, 49
models
acting on, 215
articulating, 65–70
assumptions in, 127–128
building enthusiasm for each, 100
business, 108–117
causal, 115–116, 128–129
defining how they work, 94–101
emotion from opposing, 85–86
examining, 65–66, 70–71, 107–135
examining in decision making, 13–14
explaining, 177–178
exploratory questions for, 70–71
falling in love with, 167–168
holding in tension, 120–124
identifying extreme opposing, 84–89
implications of thinking based on, 93–94
improving with opposing views, 212–213
key players in, 96–97
leverage points between, 117–118
materials for making, 184
physical, communicating ideas with, 183–184, 185
sketching, 90–94, 102
stepping back from problem solving with, 129–132
understanding the logic for, 176, 186–189, 194
value of each, 120–124
See also tension between ideas
motor neurons, 49
mutualization, 140
National Tennis Center, Montreal, 146–147
negatives, focus on, 94–95
Nemeth, Charlan, 80
Nestlé, 201
Nestor, Daniel, 143
neurons, 48–49
Newton, Isaac, 214
Nudge (Thaler and Sustein), xiv
Nyhan, Brendan, 26–27
Oatley, Keith, 51
observation, 50
The Opposable Mind (Martin), ix–xiii, 8, 205
opposing possibilities
articulating, 75–105
building enthusiasm for each, 100
confirmation bias and, 79–80
contradictory, 156–165
curiosity and openness to, 213–214
defining how they work, 94–101
explaining and understanding, 67–68
exploring, 38–40, 67–69
exploring and integrating, 71–73
holding in tension, 120–124
identifying two extreme, 84–89
improving models with, 212–213
improving thinking with, 80
leverage points between, 117–118
list of common, 87
premature problem solving and, 86, 129–132
sketching the models for, 90–94
as stupid or evil, 33–34, 78–82
surfacing and exploring, 79–82
for Tennis Canada, 144–148
third, 88
understanding, 76–78, 79–80
value of engaging with, 216
optimization, 9
Originals (Grant), 80
oversimplification, 28–30
Palme d’Or, 109, 117
Paradis, Vanessa, 109
patience, 218
PCL Constructors Inc., 158
People’s Choice Award, 118
perceptions
expectations in shaping, 23–26
fitting into mental models, 20–22
See also mental models
perspective, 98–99, 205–211. See also empathy
physical modeling, 183–184, 185
physics, laws of, 214
Pixar Animation Studios, 189–190
Playing to Win (Lafley and Martin), 175
police force training, 156–157
politics, opposition in, 78–79
Polman, Paul, 15, 201–205, 212, 217
Popova, Maria, 55
Popper, Karl, 189
Port Sunlight, 199–205
positives, focus on, 94–96
possibilities, generating, 137–171
decomposition pathway for, 156–165, 171
double down pathway for, 150, 152–156, 170
hidden gem pathway for, 143–151, 169
pathways for, 142–143
See also opposing possibilities
Predictably Irrational (Ariely), xiv, 23–24
Princeton University, 20–21
problem solving
avoiding premature, 86, 129–132
defining questions for, 55
defining the problem in, 66–67, 81, 82–83
examining models for, 13–14
exploring possible answers in, ix–xiii, 38–40, 67–69
generating new possibilities in, 14
identifying extreme opposing models in, 84–89
integrative thinking for, ix–xiii
reframing the problem in, xii–xiii
sketching the models for, 90–94
understanding the problem for, 13
pro/con lists, 10, 94–96
Procter & Gamble, xi, 74, 84, 215
key players at, 96–97
storytelling at, 179–180
projection bias, 33
pro/pro lists, 94–96, 97–100
for Canada Post, 214
determining value of each model with, 120–124
templates for, 104–105
“Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk” (Kahneman and Tversky), xiv–xv
prototypes, ix–xiii, 14–15, 173–197
assessing, 65, 66, 73–74
creativity enabled with, 56
defining possibilities and, 176–185
testing, 176, 189–191
understanding the logic for, 176, 186–189, 194
proxy experiences, 51
questions
defining clear, 55
in double down pathway, 153
for examining the models, 119
exploratory, examining models with, 70–71
for exploring possibiliti
es, 72–73
in integrative thinking, 131–132
Raonic, Milos, 147, 191
rationality, xiv–xv, 30
reasoning
empathy disrupted by, 49
metacognition about, 44–46
reciprocity, shared, 52
Red Hat, 84
reframing, xii–xiii
assumptions, 126
of closure, 212
creativity and, 54
in defining the problem, 81, 82–83
the problem, 130–131
Reifler, Jason, 26–27
Reservoir Dogs, 108
Riel, Jennifer, 75–76, 80–81, 156–157
Ries, Eric, 184
risk and risk management, 173–174
Rizzolatti, Giacomo, 49
Roam, Dan, 181
Roger & Me, 108
Rosen, Sharron, 184
Rotman School of Management, xiii, 75–78
sales force structure, 85
Scholes, Myron, 31
Schram, Stefanie, 176
The Sciences of the Artificial (Simon), xv
self, understanding of, 215–216
self-awareness, 44
self-control, 44
self-efficacy, 54
sensory neurons, 49
shared reciprocity norm, 52
shareholders versus customers tension, 139–140
Sharp, Isadore, ix, 84
Simon, Herb, xv
simplification, excessive, 28–30
single-loop learning, 207–208
Sloan, Alfred P., 39, 85–86
Smith Carter Architects and Engineers, 158
social exclusion experiment, 24–25
solitary geniuses, 53
Southwest Airlines, 181
stakeholders, 96–97, 113–114, 139–140, 186
stance, 205–211
about your role in the world, 215–218
about your world, 211–215
effects of on action, 206–207
modes of learning and, 207–211
Star Wars, 107
Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens, 107–108
status quo, 174–175
Sterman, John, 19, 28–30
storyboards, 183, 185
storytelling, 178–180, 185
strategy, 175–176
stupidity, assumption of, 33–34, 78–82
Sunstein, Cass, xiv
sustainability
Toronto Film Festival and, 115–119
at Unilever, 201–205
Sutherland, Donald, 110
sympathy, empathy versus, 48
synthesis, x
systems thinking, 115
Tata, Ratan, 28–29
Tata Motors, 28–29
Tata Nano, 28–29
Taylor, David, 74
teams
momentum in problem solving in, 85–86
pro/pro charts with, 100
selecting, 34, 36
templates
for causal relationships, 135
decomposition pathway, 171
for defining possibilities, 193
double down pathway, 170
hidden gem, 169
ladder of inference, 58–59
on model assumptions, 134
on model similarities, differences, and value, 133
on model tensions, 134
pro/pro chart, 104–105
for sketching models, 102
for testing, 195–197
for understanding the logic, 194
for visualization, 103
Tennis Canada, 15, 143–148, 184–185, 187, 188
Performance Standard Fund, 147
testing and experimentation at, 190–191
tension between ideas, ix–xiii
creative resolution of, ix–xiii
decomposition pathway for, 156–165, 171
double down pathway for, 150, 152–156, 170
examining models and, 13–14
generating possibilities through, 137–171
in hidden gem pathway, 148–149
hidden gem pathway for resolving, 143–151, 169
holding, 120–124
identifying extreme models for, 84–87
at LEGO, 7–9
pathways to resolving, 142–143
premature problem solving and, 86, 129–132
questioning your thinking with, 124–126
template for, 134
Toronto Film Festival and, 112–113
See also dissent
testing, 14–15, 176, 189–191
prototypes, 73–74
templates for, 195–197
Thaler, Richard, xiv
Tharp, Twyla, 53
Thinking, Fast and Slow (Kahneman), xiv
Thorndike, Doran, Paine, and Lewis, 138
time, 56
Toronto International Film Festival, 13–14, 107–119, 142, 152
business model for, 108–109
trade-offs, x
customer experience versus efficiency, 90–92, 97–99
identifying two extremes in, 84–89
at LEGO, 5–11
optimizing and integrating, 9
at Unilever, 201–205
transparency, 204
Transsolar KlimaEngineering, 158, 160
Truffaut, François, 108
Tversky, Amos, xiv
Unilever, 15, 199–205
United States Tennis Association, 144–147
University of Toronto, xiii
vaccines, 75–78, 80
value, determining for each model, 120–124, 148–150
Van der Kolk, Henk, 108
The Vanguard Group, 14, 137–142, 152
vision, sharing effectively, 177–178
visual alphabet, 181–182
visualization
communication using, 180–183, 185
of decomposition, 163–165
of double down pathway, 153–155
of hidden gem pathway, 150–151
of models, 122
template for, 103
Wakefield, Andrew, 76
Wall-E, 190
Warner Bros., 6–8
Welch, Jack, 213
Wellington Management Company, 138–139
Winnipeg Hydro, 157–162
Young, Bob, ix–xiii, 84
Zhong, Chen-Bo, 24–25
Acknowledgments
This book emerged from a long collaboration between friends. It has been a pleasure to do this work together, as we challenged, encouraged, and occasionally annoyed one another along the way. But it is by no means a two-person production. We are deeply indebted to the mentors, colleagues, and friends who have shaped our thinking.
First, this book would not have been possible without the efforts of individuals who sparked our ideas and helped develop the theory of integrative thinking. Most especially, we would like to thank Chris Argyris (Roger’s late mentor and the grandfather of integrative thinking), Marcel Desautels (whose transformative gift to create the Desautels Centre for Integrative Thinking at Rotman gave us room to explore these ideas), the late, wonderful Joe Rotman (without whom we would not have had the chance to work together; his grace and his intellect continue to inspire us both), and Hilary Austen (our most crucial thinking partner and a beloved friend). We are also indebted to the folks who meaningfully pushed forward the practice of integrative thinking: Nouman Ashraf, Ellie Avishai, Melanie Carr, Josie Fung, Darren Karn, and Nogah Kornberg. Each of you has contributed in innumerable ways to what we do and how we do it. Thank you, too, to the teachers and practitioners (some of whom we were able to highlight in this book) who share new and remarkable applications with us virtually every day.
We would also like to thank our current and former colleagues at the Rotman School, who supported and encouraged us. There are too many to name, but we would like to single out Quinn Davidson, Jamison Steeve, and the team at the Martin Prosperity Institute; Mihnea Moldoveanu and Brendan Cal
der in the Desautels Centre for Integrative Thinking; Steve Arenburg, Ken McGuffin, Karen Christensen, and Jennifer Hildebrandt from the broader events and media team; Michele Milan, Jim Fisher, and Brian Golden, who were crucial advocates for putting integrative thinking into the executive education curriculum; and Suzanne Spragge, Gerry Mabin, and Dave Samuel, three very important influencers from Roger’s advisory board during his tenure as dean.
We are also indebted to the folks we write about in the book (as with movie credits, in order of appearance), including Isadore Sharp, Bob Young, Victoria Hale, A.G. Lafley, Jørgen Vig Knudstorp, Kelli, Beth Grosso, Tim Brown, David Taylor, Piers Handling, Jack Bogle, Michael Downey, Bruce Kuwabara, Claudia Kotchka, Laura Frew, Sharron Rosen, Paul Polman, Jack Welch, Rahim Essebhai, and all of our students, especially Adam, Collin, Gautem, Haley, Lauren, and Jabril.
The team at Harvard Business Review Press has been wonderful, as always. Thanks to Jeff Kehoe, Jennifer Waring, Kenzie Travers, Stephani Finks, and everyone at the Press who has helped shape and promote the book. Thank you, too, to Michelle Hopgood at MPI, who created all of the visuals you see in the book.
Finally, thanks to our families—especially our parents. You helped build the foundation for who we are today.
About the Authors
Jennifer Riel is an adjunct professor at the University of Toronto’s Rotman School of Management, where she teaches integrative thinking and innovation to undergraduate, MBA, and executive audiences. In this capacity, Jennifer has created and led custom workshops for organizations around the world. She also serves as a strategy and innovation adviser to senior leaders at several Fortune 500 companies.
Jennifer has served as an editor and collaborator on several books, including The Opposable Mind: How Successful Leaders Win Through Integrative Thinking; The Design of Business: Why Design Thinking Is the Next Competitive Advantage; and Playing to Win: How Strategy Really Works. She has also written for the Globe and Mail, Businessweek, Strategy, Rotman Management, Huffington Post, and Fortune.com. Jennifer received her MBA from the Rotman School of Management in 2006.
Roger Martin is an acclaimed author, consultant, and professor. He is Director of the Martin Prosperity Institute at the Rotman School of Management, University of Toronto (where he also served as dean from 1998 to 2013). Prior to Rotman, he spent thirteen years as a director of Monitor Company, a global strategy consulting firm. He served as cohead of the firm for two years.
Roger is an adviser to CEOs on strategy, design, and integrative thinking. He has written widely on these subjects and has published eleven books, including The Opposable Mind, The Design of Business, Fixing the Game, Playing to Win (with A.G. Lafley), and Getting Beyond Better (with Sally Osberg).
In 2013 Roger placed third on the Thinkers50 list, a biennial ranking of the most influential global business thinkers. In 2007 he was named a Businessweek “B-School All-Star” for being one of the ten most influential business professors in the world. Businessweek also named him one of seven “Innovation Gurus” in 2005. A Canadian from Wallenstein, Ontario, Roger received his AB from Harvard College, with a concentration in economics, in 1979 and his MBA from Harvard Business School in 1981.
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