by Cody Lundin
More expensive lithium batteries, now commonly available at most grocery stores, have up to a fifteen-year shelf life. That's where the advantage ends, however, for our emergency flashlight motives. Lithium batteries are typically reserved for devices that require a lot of power in a short amount of time such as MP3 players, digital cameras, and CD players. Just in case you're getting testy and want to argue the lithium battery point, call the Energizer battery company 1–800 number available on the Internet like I did. They will tell you that other than the longer shelf life, lithium batteries for flashlights are, and I quote, "a waste of money."
Spare alkaline batteries carried in my survival kit for one year give approximately four hours of light with the first three hours being the brightest. The last hour of light is marginal but still useful for close-up household tasks. You should rotate your batteries in the flashlight as well as your spares every year, whether you have put them to use or not. I bind my spares together with brightly colored tape and write the month and year they were purchased in permanent marker on the tape. This takes the guesswork out of when you should rotate the little gems.
The ends of batteries corrode quickly, even in the arid Southwest, so get in the habit of inspecting your spares a few times a year. If you live in a wet climate, plan on rotating them more frequently. Although in a pinch the corrosion can be scraped off the ends, it's a safer bet to replace them entirely. As a bonus, batteries—even AA batteries—can be placed end to end and used in conjunction with superfine steel wool to start a fire.
Light Sticks
Light sticks are just one application of an important natural phenomenon—luminescence. Generally speaking, luminescence is any emission of light that is not caused by heating. Among other things, luminescence is used in televisions, neon lights, and glow-in-the-dark stickers. It's also the principle that lights up a firefly and makes some rocks glow after dark.
Since their inception twenty-eight years ago, chemical light sticks have made their way well into urban culture and are available at many camping and big box stores. Nearly every little kid during Halloween becomes a glowing example of the power of two chemicals mixed together. Light sticks are used for a variety of applications from scuba diving to the rave dance scene. I use them to mark base camp shelters in the winter woods and desert caches of water at night for weary travelers on my field courses.
While not super cheap (two to four dollars apiece), light sticks are reasonably priced and put out enough light to get a range of close-quarters tasks accomplished with minimum hassle. These bulbless, batteryless wonders are light and portable and, dare I say it, more or less kidproof. The chemical reaction that takes place within the light stick generates absolutely no heat so parents don't have to worry about junior lighting the drapes on fire, scorching the pet cat, or otherwise burning down the house. This point should not be taken lightly as, aside from flashlights, finding a decent lighting alternative that is also kid-safe is a challenge.
How light sticks emit their glow is fairly simple. They consist of a small glass vial, or activator, filled with a hydrogen peroxide solution. This glass vial is housed inside the middle of a larger plastic vial, containing a phenyl oxalate ester and dye solution. The last two chemicals make up the majority of the light stick's guts. By bending the plastic stick, the glass vial breaks open, and the two solutions flow together. The chemicals immediately react to one another in a process called chemiluminesence and the atoms begin emitting light. The particular dye used in the chemical solution gives the light a distinctive color, of which there are several to choose from. The white ones put out the most light, next yellow, and then take what you can get.
Depending on which compounds are used, the chemical reaction may go on for a few minutes or many hours. By heating the solutions, the extra energy will accelerate the reaction, and the stick will glow brighter, but for a shorter amount of time. Put an activated light stick in boiling water for a few minutes and see for yourself. If you cool the light stick, the reaction will slow down, and the light will dim. If you want to preserve your light stick for the next day, put it in the freezer or outside in cold weather—it won't stop creating light but it will drag out the reaction considerably. However, the light emitted at this point is not something you'd choose to read a book by.
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LIGHT MY FIRE! USING BATTERIES
AND STEEL WOOL TO MAKE FIRE
For this method, avoid using batteries smaller than the AA size. Box-shaped batteries that feature both terminals on the same battery can also be used. Put two batteries together end to end, the nipple of one touching the base of the other. Hold one end of the steel wool to the base end, and touch the other end of the steel wool to the nipple end. Then put the glowing result into a suitable tinder bundle and gently blow it into a flame. If you wish to use a car battery, and it's still in the car, open the hood and let the engine compartment air out. Volatile gases from batteries can explode so use caution and common sense. Don't use a longer or thicker piece of steel wool than necessary to reach the opposing battery terminal as it will require more voltage from the battery. Also, keep the ends of the steel wool fairly loose yet neat, not tightly compressed. Take it away, Robbie!
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Candles
Candle manufacturer surveys report that 96 percent of all candles are purchased by women and are used in seven out of ten U.S. households. With more than 350 commercial, religious, and institutional manufacturers of candles in the United States alone, as well as countless small craft producers, it's no wonder that retail sales of candles in the United States is estimated at $2 billion per year, excluding the sales of candle accessories. Major candle manufacturers may offer up to 2,000 varieties of candles in their product line, including tapers, straight-sided dinner candles, columns, pillars, votives, wax-filled containers, and an assortment of specialty candles in a variety of sizes, fragrances, and colors.
Not much is known about the origin of candles. Some scholars think they were first developed by the Egyptians, who used torches called "rush lights." They were made by soaking the pithy core of reeds in melted tallow or animal fat, although they had no true wick like a candle. The Romans win the prize for developing the wick candle, and they used it for everything from lighting homes and traveling at night to illuminating churches for worship. Similar to the Egyptians, they used tallow, the rendered fat from cattle or sheep, as the fuel element. Two-thirds of the tallow came from the solid fats palmitin and stearin with one-third from the liquid fat olein. Candles made from tallow smoked like crazy and emitted a certain odor that wouldn't go over well on a first date. In the Middle Ages someone finally discovered the wonders of beeswax and its delightful, clean-burning flame, although it was expensive at the time.
In the late eighteenth century, the whaling industry boomed partly due to the discovery of a wax called spermaceti that was obtained by crystallizing sperm whale oil. Fortunes were made and by 1792 the whaling port of Nantucket alone had ten candle factories. This wonder fuel could be produced not only in quantity (one sperm whale could contain hundreds of gallons of the precious goo), thus making the price cheaper, but it also burned just as clean as beeswax, had a higher degree of candlepower than anything else, and was harder and didn't bend in the summer sun.
In 1850, much to the relief of a diminished whale population, a substance called paraffin wax was made from oil and coal shales. The greatest advantage of paraffin was its cost; it was the cheapest to produce of anything that had been tried as a candle fuel. This, along with the discovery of an additive called stearic acid, solved the problem of paraffin's low melting point. With the introduction of the light bulb in 1879, candle making declined until the turn of the century when a renewed popularity for candles emerged.
Technically speaking, a candle is defined as one or more combustible wicks supported by a material that constitutes a fuel that is solid, semisolid, or quasi-rigid at room temperature, 68 to 80 degrees F (20 to 26 degrees C). It can also c
ontain additives, which are used for color, stability, odor, or to alter the burning characteristics, the combined function of which is to sustain a light-producing flame. A candle flame burns its fuel in distinct regions within the flame itself. The differences are reflected by the various colors appearing within the flame. The hotter-burning blue areas burn hydrogen that has been separated from the fuel to form water vapor. The brighter, yellow part of the flame is carbon soot being oxidized to form carbon dioxide. Thus, a well-made, properly burning candle produces mostly harmless water vapor and carbon dioxide. The chances of carbon monoxide poisoning with candles is almost nonexistent as you would need many, many candles in a very confined space.
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CANDLE SAFETY TIPS—COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL CANDLE ASSOCIATION (NCA)
The nature of a candle is a direct flame burning within whatever environment it's used, thus their use is not without risk. According to the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), irresponsible candle use is responsible for approximately 10,000 residential fires each year, along with 1,000 civilian injuries, 85 fatalities, and $120 million in property loss. National fire safety agencies in the United States report that the vast majority of mishaps with candles occur from stupid actions or negligence. To set the record straight and make sure that you're on the straight and narrow regarding your family's candle use, the National Candle Association recommends the following safety tips when burning candles. Many of these common-sense tips will apply to any radiant-flame lighting devices, such as lanterns and oil and fat lamps.
(Warning! Any fuel-burning lighting source poses a risk for fire danger. Have a quality fire extinguisher on hand at all times and make sure that it's rotated and replaced or serviced on a regular basis.)
Always keep a burning candle within sight. Extinguish all candles when leaving a room or before going to sleep.
Never burn a candle on or near anything that can catch fire. Keep burning candles away from furniture, drapes, bedding, carpets, books, paper, flammable decorations, etc.
Keep candles out of the reach of children and pets. Do not place lighted candles where they can be knocked over by children, pets, or anyone else.
Read and carefully follow all manufacturer instructions.
Trim candlewicks to one-fourth inch each time before burning. Long or crooked wicks cause uneven burning and dripping.
Always use a candleholder specifically designed for candle use. The holder should be heat resistant, sturdy, and large enough to contain any drips or melted wax. Be sure the candleholder is placed on a stable, heat-resistant surface.
Keep burning candles away from drafts, vents, and air currents. This will help prevent rapid, uneven burning, smoking, and excessive dripping. Drafts can also blow lightweight curtains or papers into the flame where they could catch fire. Ceiling fans can cause drafts.
Keep the wax pool free of wick trimmings, matches, and debris (aka dead moths and other unrecognizable flying insects) at all times.
Do not burn a candle for longer than the manufacturer recommends.
Always burn candles in a well-ventilated room.
Extinguish the flame if it comes too close to the holder or container. For a margin of safety, discontinue burning a candle when two inches of wax remain (one-half inch if in a container). This will also help prevent possible heat damage to the counter/surface and prevent glass containers from cracking or breaking.
Never touch or move a votive or container candle when the wax is liquid.
Extinguish pillar candles if the wax pool approaches the outer edge.
Candles should be placed at least three inches apart from one another. This is to be sure they don't melt one another or create their own drafts that will cause the candles to burn improperly.
One of the safest ways to extinguish a candle is to use a candlesnuffer, which helps prevent hot wax from spattering.
Do not extinguish candles with water. The water can cause the hot wax to spatter and can cause glass containers to break.
Flashlights and other battery-powered lights are much safer light sources than candles during a power failure.
Never use a candle as light when you go into a closet to look for things.
Never use a candle for light when fueling equipment such as a lantern or kerosene heater.
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A fairly simple invention, a candle consists of a wick and fuel. The candlewick is responsible for moving the liquefied fuel upward via capillary action where it is vaporized within the candle's flame. Wicks can be composed of everything from dried moss or twisted cloth to finely braided glass fiber. Today, there are more than one hundred different wicks on the market from domestic and imported sources. For the most part, a high-quality wick is made from a braided fabric (the majority of which are 100 percent cotton or cotton-paper combinations), while a lower-quality wick is twisted, such as those used in birthday candles. The most common wicks are flat wicks, square wicks, cored wicks, and specialty and oil lamp wicks. Flat wicks are very consistent, flat-plaited wicks that curl in the flame for a self-trimming effect. Square wicks are braided wicks that also curl in the flame and are preferred in beeswax applications and can help inhibit clogging of the wick when high levels of noncombustible materials such as pigments and fragrance are used. Cored wicks are braided wicks with a round cross section and are designed to remain straight while burning. These wicks contain a separate core material of zinc, tin, cotton, paper, or dangerous lead, and are used in jars, columns, votives, and devotional lights. Specialty and oil lamp wicks are designed specifically for burning oil lamp fuels and insect-repellent flames.
The fuel element of a candle can consist of everything from mule deer fat and shortening to paraffin, beeswax, or, as colonial women figured out, boiling down the grayish green berries of bayberry bushes to produce a clean-burning, sweet-smelling wax.
An important note about lead wicks: More than twenty-five years ago, members of the National Candle Association, which makes 90 percent of the candles in the United States, agreed to ban lead wicks from their products; but how to tell if you're buying one of the other 10 percent is hard to figure out. Imported candles, most notably those from China and the religious candles made in Mexico, have been found to contain lead wicks, so do some research on what you are buying. To test candles for possible lead-core wicks, take a piece of white paper and rub the tip of an unburned candlewick onto the paper. If it leaves a light grey, pencillike mark, it has a lead-core wick. User-safe zinc or tin-core wicks should not leave any mark on the paper.
Storing and Using Candles
I burned candles and oil lamps for years as the primary source of light in my home before my investment in solar photovoltaics. Candles require thought regarding their storage, especially in areas of extreme environmental heat. I have trashed many a candle in unrelenting Arizona temperatures. Store your candles in a cool, dark, dry place. Longer dinner or taper-type candles should be stored flat to prevent warping. Think about candle placement in your home for safety and greater efficiency. Candles placed on a windowsill can deform or melt in the sun. High areas in homes such as lofts and attics, while shaded from direct sun, can reduce a candle to a puddle from the simple fact that hot air rises.
A well-made candle should not soot or smoke when burning properly. Smoking will occur, however, whenever a candle's flame is disturbed, which allows unburned carbon particles (soot) to escape. Any candle can be made to smoke by causing the flame to flicker from a draft. Although the soot produced by quality candles does not present a health concern, it can be a drag in close quarters with minimal opportunities for ventilation. Minimize candle flickering by trimming the wick to one-fourth inch before lighting, as well as keeping the candle free from blower vents, obnoxious drafts, and strong air currents.
Tips for Getting the Old Wax out of Your Candleholders
Poorly fitting candles caused by old wax stuck within candleholders can be dangerous as they are more prone to being knocked from their holder. To make
cleaning your candleholders easier:
run very hot water over them or leave them (metal holders) outside in hot summer sun
OR
place the holder in a freezing environment, allowing the wax to shrink and pop off
OR
for votive candles, think ahead and add a few drops of water to the glass before inserting the candle. A word of caution: Do not add more than a few drops and don't add water unless you intend to burn the candle immediately afterward. If not burned immediately, the candle's wick can, over time, absorb the water and no longer burn properly. Don't use a sharp object to remove old wax from glass holders as it could weaken the glass, causing it to break upon subsequent use.
Making Sense of Scented Candles
Our sense of smell is one of our most powerful senses, and fragrance experts say that some smells can have a deep affect on people's psyches. Candles are available in a seemingly endless variety of fragrances from blooming flowers to baked goods to apple cider to pine trees. Believe it or not, according to data from the National Candle Association, the most important factor that people look for when buying candles is their fragrance. While scented candles may help folks feel relaxed, refreshed, and calm, they can also antagonize allergies and tempers and be a real turn-off, especially in tight quarters or locations with minimal airflow. Some environmentally sensitive people that I know can't even be in the same building with scented candles as the smell makes them sick. While you may dig the aromatherapy effects of scented candles, Cousin Jack might not. Play it safe and reserve burning the scented candles for use in the outhouse or the next holiday dinner.
