The ‘geography’ of this account was clearly inspired by knowledge of strange lands to the east that had actually been explored by Viking Age traders but which had later been reinvented in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Norway and Iceland into a fabulous never-never land that was situated far, far away. This is revealed by the fact that, in Snorri’s account, Odin’s journey to Scandinavia is described as being via the Don and Volga rivers and through Garðaríki (the Old Norse name for Kiev-Rus); a route that, in reverse, was the historic Viking routeway to the Byzantine Empire and Serkland, which was the Norse name for the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate.
Ynglinga Saga explains that the ruler of this area was Odin but he is described in what is known as a euhemerised way. This means that a mythological figure is presented as if he/she was once a real heroic person, who was later regarded as divine. In this way, Snorri – who wrote in Christian thirteenth-century Iceland – presented the traditional stories of the Norse gods as if they had been human ancestors whose real identity was obscured and distorted by later writers. The mythological tradition of a conflict between the divine Æsir and Vanir is presented as if it was a real war between those led by Odin out of Asaland and the rulers of Vanaland, which suffered invasion. The eventual truce and exchange of hostages (which in Norse mythology explains the presence of Vanir among the Æsir, such as Niord with his children Freyr and Freyia, and Æsir among the Vanir, such as Haenir and Mimir) is partly written as if it was a reflection of the kinds of political compromises found in the real Viking Age. The confused nature of this is revealed in the fact that Odin is presented both as a magical figure and at the same time as a mortal who dies and is cremated.
The saga goes on to explain how Freyr founded the Swedish Yngling royal dynasty at Uppsala. Then the storyline follows the line of Swedish kings until Ingjald. His descendants settled in Norway and were thus the ancestors of the Norwegian kings. Snorri is particularly careful to identify this as the line of the famous Norwegian king, Harald Fairhair (died c.933).
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Odin, the ruler of Asaland
To the east of the river Tana-kvísl there is a land that was once called Asaland, that is the ‘Land of the Æsir’ or ‘Asia Land’, though some remember it as Asaheimr or the ‘World of the Æsir’. The capital city of that land was called Asagarth. In that city the ruler was named Odin.
A great temple was located there and the custom of the place was that twelve temple priests presided over its rituals, sacrifices and judgements. They were known as the diar (‘lords’). Odin was a famous warrior and travelled far and wide, conquering other nations. He won every battle he fought and so his people came to believe that it was him who decided who would win and lose. Whenever his own people went to war, he blessed them and they believed that this would assure them of victory. And whenever his people were in trouble, they called out his name and believed that he would help them and protect them. They did this on land and sea.
Odin had two brothers and one was called Ve and the other was called Vili. They acted as his regents when he was away. Once it happened that Odin was away for so long that the people thought he would never return. Then Ve and Vili divided up the land and its wealth between them but held Odin’s wife, Frigg, in common. However, Odin did eventually return and took back the land and his wife.
The war between the Æsir and the Vanir
Odin and the people of the Æsir were in conflict with a rival people known as the Vanir. Odin took an army of the Æsir and invaded the land of the Vanir, but they defended their land determinedly and neither side could gain the victory. Eventually both sides grew tired of this conflict and they arranged a meeting, which aimed finally to put an end to the war. As part of this they gave each other hostages in order to safeguard the peace and ensure that each side kept to the agreement. As part of this arrangement, the Vanir offered up their noblest members: Niord, who was very rich, along with his son Freyr. The Æsir did likewise and gave as hostages Haenir, who was strong and good-looking and who the Æsir said was a fine leader; and Mimir, who was very wise. The Vanir too offered one of their wisest members: he was called Kvasir.
Things did not turn out as expected, though, for Haenir was totally dependent on Mimir for advice. However, if Mimir was not present then he would always reply: ‘Let others decide.’ After this had happened many times, the Vanir decided that the Æsir had cheated them and that Haenir was not at all wise. In their anger, they beheaded Mimir and sent his severed head to the Æsir. But Odin took Mimir’s head, covered it with herbs that stopped it from decaying and, furthermore, he recited spells over it. This gave the severed head magic power and it was able to speak to him and tell him secrets.
Things turned out better for the Vanir hostages among the Æsir. For Niord and Freyr were appointed by Odin as priests, who were to carry out sacrifices. Among the Æsir they were considered to be gods. Niord’s daughter was named Freyia and she was a priestess. It was Freyia who taught the Æsir the magic known as seithr, which enabled her to connect with the spirit-world; for this was common practice among the Vanir. Now, Freyr and Freyia were Niord’s children by his own sister. However, among the Æsir it was forbidden to have sexual relations with close family members.
Odin leads the Æsir from Asaland to Scandinavia
A great range of high mountains runs from the north-east to the south-west in the vicinity of Asaland. South of the mountains lies Turkland. Odin held land there. It was at that time that the Rumverjar (Romans) became powerful, ruled many peoples and drove their leaders into exile.
Since Odin had magical powers, he could foresee that his descendants would inhabit the northern regions of the world and would rule them. As a result, he appointed his brothers, Ve and Vili, to rule from Asagarth; however, he and all of the gods with him and a host of people left Asaland and travelled to a new home. At first, they travelled to the west into Garthariki (Russia); from there they turned south to Saxland (Germany). Odin became the king over large areas of Saxland and placed his many sons there to hold the land. After this, he led his people north towards the coast and took up residence on the Danish island of Funen, at the place later called Odinsey (‘Odin’s sanctuary’). After this, Odin sent Gefion north over the sea in search of more lands. She came to King Gylfi of Sweden and he gave her one ‘plough-land’. After this, she travelled into Giantland and there she had four sons with a certain giant. Eventually she changed them into oxen and harnessed them to the plough. These giants/oxen pulled the land out into the sea and that is called Zealand. It was there that she made her home and married a son of Odin. A lake was left behind. It is called Logrinn or Mälaren. The fiords in Logrinn correspond to the headlands in Zealand.
When Odin heard tell of the good and fertile land to the east of his home he went there in search of it. It was then that Gylfi came to terms with Odin because he decided that he was not strong enough to resist the Æsir. Despite this, Odin and Gylfi often competed over who was more skilled in the art of tricks and illusions. But the Æsir always won. Odin set up his hall at the place that is now called Old Sigtunir. It was there that he constructed a large temple and carried out sacrifices in the manner of the Æsir. He gave dwelling places to the various priests who served in his temple: Niord lived at Noatun, Freyr at Uppsala, Heimdall at Himinbjorg, Thor at Thrudvangar, Baldr at Breidablik.
The shape-shifting of Odin and his victories in battle
When Odin went into battle he always terrified his enemies: for he could change his appearance and speak in a way that all believed his words. He spoke always in rhyme, which gave rise to what we now call poetry. It was with Odin and his priests that poetry originated in the lands of the north.
As well as this, Odin could make his opponents blind or deaf or fall into a panic. When this occurred, their weapons were no better than pieces of wood. In contrast, his own men did not wear mail and acted as wild as if they were dogs or wolves. They bit the edges of their shields, and became as strong as bears or bulls. The
y slaughtered many – but nobody could touch them. That is the wild anger of warriors that is called berserk-fury.
As well as this, Odin could change his shape. It was then that his body appeared as if he was asleep or dead. But while this occurred, Odin had actually taken on the form of a bird or a fish or a snake, and had been transported, in an instant, to far-off lands. In addition, he could also put out fire, calm a stormy sea or change the wind direction. He could achieve this with words alone. Furthermore, he owned a ship which, although it was large enough to carry Odin and his warriors, could also be folded up and carried in a pocket.
Odin also kept Mimir’s head by his side, for from it he learned secrets from across the various worlds. More than this, he sometimes woke up dead men; at other times, he sat beneath the gallows with the bodies of hanged men swaying above him. For this reason, he was sometimes called ‘draugadrottinn’ (the ‘lord of ghosts’) or ‘hangadrottinn’ (the ‘lord of the hanged’).
He had two ravens, who flew far and wide and brought him the news. As a result, he became very knowledgeable and wise. He was skilful in the use of runes and magic spells. As a result, the Æsir are called ‘galdrasmithir’ (‘magic makers’). In addition, Odin practised what is called seithr, a form of magic that enabled him to connect with the spirit-world. And from that he was able to predict the fates of men and to foresee things that had not yet happened; it also enabled him to cause the death of men or cause calamity and disease; he also used it to take the ability to think and take the strength from some men, and give it to others of his choosing. It was this form of magic that Freyia of the Vanir had introduced to the Æsir.
The laws established by Odin
The laws of the Norse people originated in the laws established by Odin. For it was Odin who decreed that all the dead must be cremated along with all their possessions. He decreed that those dead warriors who come to his hall at Valhalla would come with as much wealth as was piled on their funeral pyres and burned with them. However, their ashes were to be de posited in the sea or buried under burial mounds. And memorial stones were to be raised up to record the deeds of the famous dead. This was a custom that carried on for a great many years after that.
Odin’s laws also decreed that there would be three times for sacrifice in the year: one sacrifice was to occur as winter approached for a good winter season; another sacrifice was to take place in the middle of winter to ensure success in next year’s crops; and a third sacrifice was to take place in summer and that final one was to ensure victory in war.
The death of Odin
When Odin was on the point of death he had himself marked with the point of a spear. From this he claimed for himself all men who died in battle. He said he was going to Gothheimr (‘Home of the gods’) and there he would be reunited with his old companions. The people of the Svear (that is, in Sweden) believed that he had gone back to Asagarth, from where he had journeyed long before. There, they believed, he would live for ever.
The Svear thought he appeared to them before great battles occurred. It was then that he granted victory to some; and others he allowed to die so they would join him in Valhalla.
When Odin died, he was cremated in a magnificent ceremony. It was believed that the higher the smoke rose into the sky, the higher up in the realm of heaven would be the one whose funeral smoke was rising. And he would be richer in Valhalla if his wealth was burned with him.
After Odin died, Niord became ruler over the people of the Svear and continued the manner of worship established by Odin. He received payments of tribute from across Sweden. During his reign, there was peace and good harvests, so that the Svear believed that he had power over the harvest and could assure prosperity to the kingdom.
It was during Niord’s reign that most of the gods died and were all burned in the same manner as Odin before them. Afterwards, they too were worshipped. Eventually, Niord himself fell sick and died. Before he died he caused himself to be marked for Odin as Odin had done with the spear point. Then the Svear burned his body and mourned him greatly.
Freyr establishes the royal line of Sweden
Freyr ruled the Svear after Niord. He was popular among the people and, like his father, the harvests were good during his reign. Freyr built a great temple at Uppsala and made Uppsala his capital. He ruled from there and it was to Uppsala that taxes and tribute were brought. Freyr was also known as Yngvi and this title came to be used after him as a title of honour; and his descendants were called the Ynglings (meaning ‘the descendants of Yngvi’).
Eventually Freyr fell ill and, as his health faded, the leading people decided how to respond: few were allowed to approach him and the leaders built him a great tomb. In it they constructed a doorway and three windows.
When Freyr died, they placed him in the tomb and told the Svear that he was still alive. They kept up this pretence for three years. During this period of time, they poured all the tribute brought to Uppsala into the mound: the gold was poured through one window, the silver was poured through the second window, and copper was poured through the third window. The prosperity and peace associated with the reign of Freyr continued. And his sister, Freyia, continued the traditional sacrifices, for she was the only one of the gods left alive. As a result, she became the best known of the deities, and all noblewomen came to be called by her name as an honorary title.
The sacrifice of a king to bring prosperity to the land
There was once a king of the Svear who was named Domaldi. He succeeded his father, Visburr, and ruled over Sweden. In his time, though, misfortune came on the land and there was famine. People grew very hungry.
It was then that the Svear came together and held great sacrifices at Uppsala. They did this in the autumn over three years. In the first year, they sacrificed oxen, but there was still no improvement in the situation and the crops continued to fail. The second year, they carried out a human sacrifice, but still the crops failed; indeed, some said the situation worsened. The third year, the Svear once again came in the autumn to Uppsala, and they came in great numbers. For it was the time when the sacrifices were to occur and there was much suffering in the land.
It was then that the Swedish nobles held a great council. They discussed the crisis and they came to an agreement among themselves. They agreed that their king, Domaldi, must be the one who was the cause of the terrible famine. In consequence, they resolved that they should sacrifice him in order to restore the prosperity of the land. And this is what they did. They killed him and his blood ran red on the altar at Uppsala.
A king sacrifices his own sons in order to extend his own life and reign
There was once a king of Sweden named Aun and he ruled from Uppsala. When he reached sixty years of age he held a great sacrifice that he might have a long life. He sacrificed his own son to Odin. Then Odin told him that he would live for another sixty years.
Aun was king for another twenty years until he was driven from his throne by a rival and he was in exile for twenty years. Then, when that rival died, King Aun returned to Uppsala and reigned there for another twenty years. That completed the sixty years that he had been promised by Odin.
At the end of this time, he held another great sacrifice and sacrificed his second son. After this, Odin told him that he would live for ever but that this would only be so if he sacrificed a son of his to Odin every ten years. At the same time, he was to give a name to a region in his land which reflected the number of sons that he had sacrificed to Odin.
This continued until he had sacrificed seven of his sons; and then he lived for ten years without being able to walk. His servants carried him around on a chair.
After this, he sacrificed his eighth son to Odin; and then he lived for another ten years, but he was confined to his bed.
Then he sacrificed his ninth son and, after this, he lived for ten more years, but he had to drink from a feeding cup like a baby.
Finally, King Aun had just one son left. He determined to sacrifice him, and was
going to give Odin all the region of Uppsala and it would be called Tiundaland (‘Tenth land’).
But the people of the Svear stopped him from doing this. So, no sacrifice was held. As a result, King Aun died, and he was buried at Uppsala.
It was from these ancient kings of the Svear that the line of the kings of Sweden and Norway were descended. These kings traced their lineage back to the Æsir and Vanir.
22
The magic sword called Tyrfing
THIS IS THE story of a magical sword. Different manuscripts and traditions render its name as ‘Tyrfing’, ‘Tirfing’ or ‘Tyrving’. The name is obscure and may be related to that of the Terwingi: these were a part of the Goth tribe. Roman sources in the fourth century record this tribal name in the form ‘Tervingi’. By the fourth century AD this group were living on the Danubian plains west of the Dniester river, which today rises in Ukraine and then flows through Moldova, before finally returning to Ukrainian territory and flowing into the Black Sea. The accounts of this magic sword are preserved in stories known as ‘the Tyrfing Cycle’. These are a collection of Norse legends, which have the magic sword Tyrfing as a common feature. Two of the legends are found in the Poetic Edda (which includes a poem called Hervararkviða) and in the Hervarar Saga, which contains other traditions about this sword. The name of the sword is also used in this saga to indicate the tribal group of the Goths. This may indicate a Norse tradition that these eastern lands of ‘Kiev-Rus’ (through which Norse adventurers had travelled and some had married into the ruling dynasties) were places of mystery.
Tales of Valhalla Page 18
