by James Geary
191. The different space-related metaphors that English and Mandarin speakers use to think and talk about time. Boroditsky, Lera. “Does Language Shape Thought? English and Mandarin Speakers’ Conceptions of Time.” Cognitive Psychology 43, 1, 2001, pp. 1–22.
192. “Differences in talking do indeed lead to differences in thinking.” Ibid., p. 18.
193. People “use spatial knowledge to think about time . . .” Ibid., p. 6.
194. Those primed by pictures of business-related objects consistently interpreted the situation as more competitive . . . Kay, Aaron C., et al. “Material Priming: The Influence of Mundane Physical Objects on Situational Construal and Competitive Behavior Choice.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 95, 2004, pp. 83–96.
195. Anger and heat. Wilkowski, Benjamin M., et al. “Hot-Headed Is More than an Expression: The Embodied Representation of Anger in Terms of Heat.” Emotion 9, 4, 2009, pp. 464–477.
196. Subjects are quicker to identify anger-related words after being primed with heat imagery. Valenzuela, Javier, and Soriano, Cristina. “Looking at Metaphors: A Picture-Word Priming Task as a Test for the Existence of Conceptual Metaphor.” Fifth Annual AELCO/SCOLA Conference, University of Zaragoza, Spain, 2004.
197. How color affects behavior. Elkan, Daniel. “Winners Wear Red: How Colour Twists Your Mind.” New Scientist 2723, 26, 2009.
198. Participants rated teams in darker professional football and hockey uniforms as more malevolent than teams in lighter uniforms. Frank, M. G., and Gilovich, T. “The Dark Side of Self and Social Perception: Black Uniforms and Aggression in Professional Sports.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, 1988, pp. 74–85. Cited in: Meier, Brian P., and Robinson, Michael D. “The Metaphorical Representation of Affect.” Metaphor and Symbol 20, 4, 2005, pp. 239–257.
199. In the red. My thanks to Jason Zweig for these musings on the economic impact of the color red.
200. People using red rather than blue pens . . . Rutchick, Abraham M., Slepian, Michael L., and Ferris, Bennett D. “The Pen Is Mightier than the Word: Object Priming of Evaluative Standards.” European Journal of Social Psychology 40, 5, 2010, pp. 704–708.
201. The neural systems responsible for physical disgust. Moll, J., et al. “The Moral Affiliations of Disgust: A Functional MRI Study.” Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology 18, 1, 2005, pp. 68–78. Cited in: Williams, Lawrence E., and Bargh, J. A. “Experiencing Physical Warmth Promotes Interpersonal Warmth.” Science 322, 2008, pp. 606–607.
202. Heart and breathing rates accelerate when we see pictures of threatening objects. Cited in: Kosslyn, Stephen M., Ganis, G., and Thompson, W. L. “Neural Foundations of Imagery.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2, 2001, pp. 635–642.
203. The brain’s visual circuits respond when we see something and when we see it only in our mind. Kosslyn, Stephen M., and Thompson, William L. “Shared Mechanisms in Visual Imagery and Visual Perception: Insights from Cognitive Neuroscience.” In: The New Cognitive Neurosciences. Gazzaniga, Michael S., editor in chief. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000, pp. 975–985.
204. Mental simulation was as effective as physical practice in walking the simplest routes. Vieilledent, Stephane, Kosslyn, Stephen M., Berthoz, Alain, and Giraudo, Marie Dominique. “Does Mental Simulation of Following a Path Improve Navigation Performance Without Vision?” Cognitive Brain Research 16, 2003, pp. 238–249.
205. When test subjects are asked to imagine walking specific distances . . . Feldman, Jerome A. From Molecule to Metaphor: A Neural Theory of Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006, p. 215.
206. Thinking is a kind of simulated interaction with the world. Decety, Jean, and Grezes, Julie. “The Power of Simulation: Imagining One’s Own and Other’s Behavior.” Brain Research 1079, 2006, pp. 4–14. See also Coulson, Seana. “Metaphor Comprehension and the Brain.” In: The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 189.
207. Physical actions related to specific metaphors. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., and Matlock, Teenie. “Metaphor, Imagination, and Simulation: Psycholinguistic Evidence.” In: The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 167. See also: Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr. Embodiment and Cognitive Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp. 183–184.
208. “Performing an action facilitates understanding . . .” Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., and Matlock, Teenie. “Metaphor, Imagination, and Simulation: Psycholinguistic Evidence,” p. 167.
209. The literal meanings of verbs like “kick” and “walk” activate neurons in the brain regions involved in the physical actions of kicking and walking. Cited in: Dehaene, Stanislas. Reading in the Brain: The Science of Evolution of a Human Invention. New York: Viking, 2009, p. 113.
210. Making a fist and the accessibility of the concept of power. Schubert, Thomas W. “The Power in Your Hand: Gender Differences in Bodily Feedback from Making a Fist.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30, 6, 2004, pp. 757–769 and Schubert, Thomas W., and Kooleb, Sander L. “The Embodied Self: Making a Fist Enhances Men’s Power-related Self-conceptions.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45, 2009, pp. 828–834.
211. “If language was given to men to conceal their thoughts . . .” Napier, John. Hands. Revised by Russell H. Tuttle. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 157.
212. The “nose thumb,” “fingers crossed,” and “OK sign.” McNeill, David. Hand and Mind: What Gestures Reveal about Thought. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 57–59.
213. The anatomical term for the middle finger. Napier, John. Hands, pp. 22–23.
214. “Language is inseparable from imagery . . .” McNeill, David. Gesture and Thought. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2005, p. 4.
215. Mirror neurons, gesture, and the origins of language. Rizzolatti, Giacomo, and Arbib, Michael A. “Language within Our Grasp.” Trends in Neuroscience 21, 1998, pp. 188–194.
216. “What made us human crucially depended at one point on gestures.” Arbib, Michael A. “From Monkey-like Action Recognition to Human Language: An Evolutionary Framework for Neurolinguistics.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28, 2005, pp. 105–167.
217. As much as 90 percent of spoken descriptions is accompanied by gestures of some sort. McNeill, David. Gesture and Thought, p. 4.
218. The blind gesture during speech with the same frequency as the sighted. Goldin-Meadow, Susan. Hearing Gesture: How Our Hands Help Us Think. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003, pp. 141–144.
219. Metaphors in American Sign Language. Taub, Sarah F. Language from the Body: Iconicity and Metaphor in American Sign Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 3–4.
220. When adults have their limbs restrained during speech, they produce less vivid imagery. Goldin-Meadow, Susan. Hearing Gesture: How Our Hands Help Us Think, p. 165.
221. “In a metaphoric gesture . . .” McNeill, David. Gesture and Thought, p. 39.
222. “The gestures provide imagery for the non-imageable.” Ibid., p. 45.
223. The woman described her former boyfriend as depressive. Müller, Cornelia. Metaphors Dead and Alive, Sleeping and Waking: A Dynamic View. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008, pp. 77–79.
224. The phrase “It sparked” is a colloquialism for falling in love. Ibid., pp. 32–34.
225. Speakers of Turkana use a similar gesture to convey the concept of knowledge. McNeill, David. Gesture and Thought, pp. 46–47.
226. Lhermitte casually mentioned the word “museum” and the rude/polite university students. Bargh, John A. “Bypassing the Will: Towards Demystifying the Nonconscious Control of Social Behavior.” In: The New Unconscious. Uleman, James S., and Bargh, John A., eds. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 37–58.
227. Subjects presented with primes relating to the elderly. Cited in: Holland, Rob W., Hendriks, Merel,
and Aarts, Henk. “Smells Like Clean Spirit: Nonconscious Effects of Scent on Cognition and Behavior.” Psychological Science 16, 9, 2005, pp. 689–693.
228. Subjects presented with primes relating to cooperation and achievement. Bargh, John A. “Bypassing the Will: Toward Demystifying the Nonconscious Control of Social Behavior.” In: The New Unconscious, p. 39.
229. German trial judges read the details of a criminal case. Mussweiler, T., and Strack, F. “Comparing Is Believing: A Selective Accessibility Model of Judgmental Anchoring.” In: European Review of Social Psychology 10, 1999, pp. 135–136.
230. “Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world.” From Shelley’s “A Defence of Poetry.” Available at http://www.bartleby.com/27/23.html.
231. “Language is vitally metaphorical . . .” Cited in: Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965, pp. 90–91.
232. “Arbitrary coherence.” Ariely, Dan. Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions. London: HarperCollins, 2008, p. 26.
233. “The people who get to impose their metaphors on the culture get to define what we consider to be true.” Lakoff, George, and Johnson, Mark. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003, p. 160.
234. “What therefore is truth?” Nietzsche, Friedrich. “On Truth and Falsity in Their Ultramoral Sense.” In: The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Levy, Oscar, ed. New York: MacMillan, 1911, pp. 183–184.
235. A small democratic country of no vital interest to U.S. national security. Gilovich, T. “Seeing the Past in the Present: The Effect of Associations to Familiar Events on Judgments and Decisions.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40, 7, 1981, pp. 797–808.
236. “When one must make a decision . . .” Ibid., p. 807.
237. The Stroop effect. Stroop, J. Ridley. “Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 18, 1935, pp. 643–662. See also: Glucksberg, Sam, et al. “On Understanding Non-literal Speech: Can People Ignore Metaphors?” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21, 1, 1982, pp. 85–98.
238. “Metaphorical meanings are apprehended . . .” and “We can no more shut off . . .” Glucksberg, Sam. Understanding Figurative Language: From Metaphors to Idioms. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 21 and p. 28.
239. “A small but symbolic effort . . .” See: “US Congress opts for ‘freedom fries’,” BBC News, March 12, 2003, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2842493.stm.
240. Alternatives to “global warming.” See: “Seeking to Save the Planet, with a Thesaurus,” New York Times, May 1, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/02/us/politics/02enviro.html?th&emc=th.
241. “Public structures.” Aubrun, Axel, and Grady, Joseph. “ ‘Public Structures’ as a Simplifying Model for Government.” A report commissioned by the FrameWorks Institute on behalf of the Council for Excellence in Government and Demos, October 2005.
242. Participants read a short passage about the economy, either one that explicitly compared economic development to auto racing or one that did not. Krennmayr, Tina. “When Do People Think Metaphorically?” The Eighth International Conference on Researching and Applying Metaphor, July 2010, Amsterdam.
243. Surrendering the phrase “war on drugs.” See: “White House Czar Calls for End to ‘War on Drugs’,” Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124225891527617397.html.
244. There are around 1,700 sports metaphors in common use and fifty-nine football metaphors deployed during the Gulf War. Herbeck, Dale A. “Sports Metaphors and Public Policy: The Football Theme in Desert Storm Discourse.” In: Metaphorical World Politics. Beer, Francis A., and De Landtsheer, Christ’l, eds. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004, p. 123.
245. George Carlin on football versus baseball metaphors. Carlin’s clip can be viewed at http://learning.writing101.net/com102/blog/2010/02/08/lesson–4-more-on-metaphor/.
246. “Give America a chance to digest . . .” Cited in: O’Brien, Gerald V. “Indigestible Food, Conquering Hordes, and Waste Materials: Metaphors of Immigrants and the Early Immigration Restriction Debate in the United States.” Metaphor and Symbol 18, 1, 2003, pp. 36–37.
247. One experiment specifically designed to explore the priming effects of the “nation = body” metaphor. Landau, Mark J., et al. “Evidence that Self-Relevant Motives and Metaphoric Framing Interact to Influence Political and Social Attitudes.” Psychological Science 20, 11, 2009, pp. 1421–1427.
248. “When fertilization fails to occur . . .” Martin, Emily. The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992, p. 45.
249. “At every point in the system, functions ‘fail’ and falter.” Ibid., p. 42.
250. “Illness is not a metaphor . . .” Sontag, Susan. Illness as Metaphor. New York: Random House, 1983, p. 7.
251. The moral Stroop test. Sherman, Gary D., and Clore, Gerald L. “The Color of Sin: White and Black Are Perceptual Symbols of Moral Purity and Pollution.” Psychological Science 20, 8, 2009, pp. 1019–1025.
252. A study involving participants from twenty different countries. Meier, Brian P., and Robinson, Michael D. “The Metaphorical Representation of Affect.” Metaphor and Symbol 20, 4, 2005, pp. 239–257.
253. “Just as the word ‘lemon’ activates ‘yellow’ . . .” Sherman, Gary D., and Clore, Gerald L. “The Color of Sin: White and Black Are Perceptual Symbols of Moral Purity and Pollution,” p. 1021.
254. People automatically assume that bright objects are good and dark objects are bad. Meier, Brian P., Robinson, Michael D., and Clore, Gerald L. “Why Good Guys Wear White: Automatic Inferences about Stimulus Valence Based on Brightness.” Psychological Science 15, 2, 2004, pp. 82–87.
255. Children even tend to assume that black boxes contain negative objects. Sherman, Gary D., and Clore, Gerald L. “The Color of Sin: White and Black Are Perceptual Symbols of Moral Purity and Pollution,” p. 1019.
256. People subliminally primed with black faces were more hostile. Kay, Aaron C., et al. “Material Priming: The Influence of Mundane Physical Objects on Situational Construal and Competitive Behavior Choice.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 95, 2004, p. 94.
257. Whites subliminally exposed to black faces. Smith, Pamela K., Dijksterhuis, A., and Chaiken, Shelly. “Subliminal Exposure to Faces and Racial Attitudes: Exposure to Whites Makes Whites Like Blacks Less.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44, 2008, pp. 50–64.
258. Researchers produced two different versions of a putative campaign advertisement for Barack Obama. From e-mail correspondence with Emory University psychologist Drew Westen. See also “Shades of Prejudice” by Shankar Vedantam, New York Times, January 19, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/19/opinion/19vedantam.html?th&emc=th.
259. Darker-skinned African-American defendants are more than twice as likely to get the death penalty. Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Davies, Paul G., Purdie-Vaughns, Valerie J., and Johnson, Sheri Lynn. “Looking Deathworthy: Perceived Stereotypicality of Black Defendants Predicts Capital-Sentencing Outcomes.” Psychological Science 17, 5, 2006, pp. 383–386.
260. People primed to think about blacks, by reading a list of names regarded as stereotypically African-American . . . Rattan, Aneeta, and Eberhardt, Jennifer L. “The Role of Social Meaning in Inattentional Blindness: When the Gorillas in Our Midst Do Not Go Unseen.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, in press.
261. The “Macbeth effect.” Zhong, Chen-Bo, and Liljenquist, Katie. “Washing Away Your Sins: Threatened Morality and Physical Cleansing.” Science 313, 5792, 2006, pp. 1451–1452
262. The simple act of hand cleaning has also been found to wash away regrets about past decisions. Lee, Spike W. S., and Schwarz, Norbert. “Washing Away Postdecisional Dissonance.” Science 328, 7 May 2010, p. 709.
263. Researchers at the University of Toronto put undergraduates in a brand-new lab . . . Z
hong, C. B., Strejcek, B., and Sivanathan, N. “A Clean Self Can Render Harsh Moral Judgment.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, in press.
264. Those exposed to citrus-scented cleaner. Holland, Rob W., Hendriks, Merel, and Aarts, Henk. “Smells Like Clean Spirit: Nonconscious Effects of Scent on Cognition and Behavior.” Psychological Science 16, 9, 2005, pp. 689–693.
265. Subjects in a room perfumed with citrus-scented Windex. Liljenquist, Katie, Zhong, Chen-Bo, and Galinsky, Adam D. “The Smell of Virtue: Clean Scents Promote Reciprocity and Charity.” Psychological Science 21, 5, 2010, pp. 381–383.
266. Participants in a dim room cheated more often. Zhong, Chen-Bo, Bohns, Vanessa K., and Gino, Francesca. “A Good Lamp Is the Best Police: Darkness Increases Dishonesty and Self-Interested Behavior.” Psychological Science, 2010, in press. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1547980.
