In the waking hours of January 8, 1815, Pakenham directed a two-pronged advance along each side of the Mississippi. While part of his command hit U.S. forces across the river, he directly led the primary assault against Jackson's main corps. Through the morning fog, nearly 3,000 redcoats encountered a barrage of artillery shells, grapeshot canisters, and volley fire on the Chalmette plain. Coffee fired from the left flank, while an assortment of pirates, militia, and volunteers fired from the right flank. Troops hailing from Tennessee and Kentucky blasted the opposite lines from the center. Although the west bank fell to the British, the Americans on the east bank never faltered. By 8:30 a.m. Pakenham had perished, along with many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars. “It was like a sea of red,” observed a Kentucky rifleman, who saw bodies covering the ground for almost 300 yards. In the final tally, the British lost more than 2,000 killed and wounded. In contrast, the Americans suffered only 13 deaths. The lopsided victory in the Battle of New Orleans made Jackson a national hero.
Within weeks of Jackson's victory, the British withdrew their troops from the Mississippi River. Cochrane headed east along the Gulf Coast and entered Mobile Bay in early February. The Royal Navy assailed the American garrison at Fort Bowyer, where almost 1,000 of His Majesty's soldiers came ashore. However, the news from Ghent halted the pointless action. U.S. warships still confronted British vessels on the high seas, while regular and militia units near St. Louis fought the last land battle against Black Hawk's warriors in a sinkhole. Both sides found it difficult to get word to all of their forces to end hostilities immediately, because they operated from the Sunda Strait to the Mississippi River.
The War of 1812 officially ended on February 16, 1815, when the Senate ratified the Treaty of Ghent without a dissenting vote. As Republican orators in Congress recounted the Battle of New Orleans, Federalist critics of the commander-in-chief fell silent. Immediately, Madison declared his war “a success” and celebrated the “valor of the military and naval forces of the country.”
Conclusion
Narrowly escaping disunion and dismemberment, the U.S. survived dark days during the War of 1812. Americans in uniform failed to conquer Canada, which remained loyal to the British Empire. The initial offensives along the northern border amounted to exercises in futility, while the naval actions on the Atlantic Ocean merely harassed British warships. An American victory on Lake Erie, however, opened the door for additional thrusts northward. Clashes from the Thames River to Horseshoe Bend foreclosed pan-Indian efforts to form a confederacy in the continental interior. The defeat of the Royal Army and Navy on Lake Champlain undermined London's plans to occupy parts of the East Coast. A military stalemate at Fort McHenry forced both sides to negotiate a treaty in Ghent, even as Jackson's triumph in New Orleans came at the close of hostilities. Throughout the armed conflict with Great Britain, the American military waged a limited war without clear objectives or widespread support.
Unprepared for the strategic challenges of Napoleonic warfare, the American military attained none of Madison's original aims. The state militia performed their duties well at times, but all too often the rank and file demonstrated the worst aspects of amateurs in arms. American troops boasted of their reputation as marksmen in the field, although rifle fire did not play a major role in most battles. Nevertheless, a cadre of Army regulars gained special prowess in command, gunnery, and engineering. Though ineptitude abounded, a handful of citizen soldiers and sailors improved their martial skills with training and experience. The Navy reclaimed national honor and achieved extraordinary results while battling adversaries on the waters. Confronting the greatest naval power in the world brought fame to American warships, but maritime operations never broke the British blockade. By 1815, the United States and Great Britain made peace without settling the disputes that initially induced the declaration of war.
While exacting a high price in American blood and treasure, the war amounted to a draw. The total number of personnel serving in the Army exceeded 528,000, although they represented less than 7 percent of the U.S. population. Only 57,000 of them served as regulars, whereas the bulk wore uniforms as volunteers, militia, and rangers. Another 20,000 saw action in the Navy and the Marine Corps. Other seamen fought the British as privateers, even if scores cowed at the sight of His Majesty's flag. Overall, the official figures for casualties indicated that U.S. forces lost 2,260 killed and 4,505 wounded. As many as 17,000 more perished from diseases such as dysentery, typhoid, pneumonia, malaria, measles, typhus, and smallpox. To replace the losses, Congress even debated a law for national conscription. Wartime expenses totaled $158 million, which the federal government financed through borrowing. Ironically, the interruption of trans-Atlantic shipping during the war encouraged the growth of domestic manufacturing.
With peace at hand, the affirmation of national identity influenced the way the American people remembered the war. Euphoria enhanced the sense of an imagined community, even if the battles on land and at sea brought great sorrow. Parades of returning veterans in cities and towns overshadowed the ghastly scenes of Washington D.C. in blackened ruins. Local newspapers celebrated the bloody campaigns against the Indians, who lost ground from the Gulf Coast to the Great Lakes. Mindful of the persistent dangers to the American republic, politicians across the country committed themselves to an enlarged task of improving security thereafter. Many found their inspiration in a wool and cotton emblem that measured 30 by 42 feet. The U.S. commander at Fort McHenry waved the large garrison flag on a September morn, because “the British will have no difficulty in seeing it from a distance.” As a sign of national resolve, the Star-Spangled Banner later became a treasured artifact of “Mr. Madison's War.”
Essential Questions
1 What were Madison's aims in the War of 1812?
2 Why did military operations in Canada fail so miserably?
3 To what extent did U.S. commanders on land and at sea learn lessons from their wartime experiences?
Suggested Readings
Barbuto, Richard V. Niagara 1814: America Invades Canada. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
Borneman, Walter. 1812: The War that Forged a Nation. New York: HarperCollins, 2004.
Daughan, George C. 1812: The Navy's War. New York: Basic Books, 2011.
Elting, John R. Amateurs to Arms! A Military History of the War of 1812. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books, 1991.
Hickey, Donald R. Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006.
Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
Horseman, Reginald. The War of 1812. New York: Knopf, 1969.
Latimer, Jon. 1812: War with America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
Nichols, Roger L. Black Hawk and the Warrior's Path. Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1992.
Owsley, Frank L. Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812–1815. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1981.
Quimby, Robert S. The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1997.
Remini, Robert V. The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson and America's First Military Victory. New York: Viking Press, 1999.
Skeen, C. Edward. Citizen Soldiers in the War of 1812. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1999.
Stagg, J. C. A. Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983.
Sugden, John. Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Henry Holt, 1997.
Taylor, Alan. The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies. New York: Knopf, 2010.
Watts, Stephen. The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790–1820. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987.
5
The Martial Republic (1815–1846)
Introduction
Like almost every soldier in the Army, Private Ransom Clark yearned to be home for Christmas. On December 25, 1835, the 23-year-old New Yorker spent the day with Company B of the 2nd Artillery Regiment. His regiment operated near Fort Brooke inside the Florida Territory. Marching along a military road to Fort King, Clark stared anxiously at the pine trees and palmetto thickets of a strange land.
Commanded by Major Francis Dade, the regulars marched for three more days before reaching the Great Wahoo swamp. The enlisted men in blue frockcoats were mostly illiterate youths from the states or recently arriving immigrants from Europe. They knew little about the Seminole, who vowed to defend their homeland and to protect fugitive slaves. Mounted on horseback, Major Dade encouraged a detachment to move their 6-pounder forward. Around 8:00 a.m., Clark heard him announce confidently: “We have now got through all danger – keep up good heart, and when we get to Fort King, I'll give you three days for Christmas.”
Suddenly, Clark heard war whoops and musket fire and saw Dade fall from his mount. Reacting to the surprise attack, the soldiers unlimbered the cannon and blasted canister shots for almost an hour. Others began delivering musket fire from behind logs. The rest scattered into the high savannah grass to confront their enemies.
Meanwhile, Clark was trapped in the crossfire. After suffering a shot to the head, another bullet shattered his groin. A third bullet entered his right shoulder, while a fourth pierced his lungs. Immobilized by his wounds, he watched helplessly as 300 Seminole massacred over a hundred men. He remained silent among the fallen, as the victorious warriors waded into the carnage in search of prizes. One grabbed him by the legs and removed his clothing.
Naked but alive, Clark began to move after sunset. “After dark I was a good deal annoyed by the wolves, who had scented my blood,” he later reported. He limped and crawled 50 miles, crossing four rivers in three days to reach the safety of Fort Brooke. No other survivor lived long enough to tell the story of what came to be known as the Dade Massacre.
Figure 5.1 The American Soldier, 1827. Army Artwork, Prints and Poster Sets, U.S. Army Center of Military History
Clark survived his deployment in Florida, although he perished five years later from an infected wound. The small war against the Seminole typified the military actions of the U.S. during the early nineteenth century. While the Navy protected lives and property beyond the shores, the regular Army – reinforced by state and voluntary militia – bolstered national security across the continent. In addition to fighting Indians and other non-state actors, the missions involved peacekeeping, reconnaissance, and interdiction. The citizens of the American republic gradually accepted the presence of a standing military, which they deemed necessary to build, to maintain, and to garrison the proliferating fortifications from the East Coast to the West Coast.
During the 30 years that followed the War of 1812, the American military stood in the vanguard of territorial expansion. The drive to the Rocky Mountains and beyond included efforts to secure lands for settlers. The federal government preferred to harvest the fruits of geographic insularity while attempting to minimize annual appropriations for defensive measures. In accordance with military policies, a small number of service members accomplished a great multitude of tasks. Despite drastic reductions to the force structure, the officers and enlisted personnel made it possible for the United States to become a transcontinental nation.
The martial spirit of the antebellum period changed the way the U.S. projected power. Americans in uniform entered new territories and removed stateless Indians, thereby turning borderlands into frontiers. While the proficiency of the state militia units declined, the volunteer militia movement invigorated civil society. Moreover, the industrial revolution prompted the Navy Department to begin to upgrade the capabilities of the maritime forces. The War Department worked with a highly motivated corps of officers, many of whom were trained as engineers. With the rise of exuberant nationalism, the Army and Navy appeared ready for almost anything.
Postwar Security
The period after the War of 1812 established a pattern for national defense that persisted for decades. The federal government avoided costly expenditures for the military that threatened to drain capital and manpower from a market economy. Paradoxically, Americans sought greater safety by enlarging, rather than contracting, their sphere of influence and power. Growth, they assumed, was the path to security.
Secretary of War James Monroe, who also served simultaneously as the Secretary of State, resolved that national security required increased support for the military establishment during peacetime. He was alarmed by the recent British invasions in the Chesapeake and the Mississippi, which revealed vulnerabilities in the continental defenses. One of his last acts while in charge of the War Department was to draft a report for the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, which he submitted on February 22, 1815. Based upon recommendations from General Winfield Scott, Monroe's report contemplated a standing army of 65,000 men or more. The presence of British regulars in Canada and conflicts with Spain over boundaries made a large permanent force an imperative. However, the report settled for a lower postwar level of 20,000, which amounted to twice the prewar level. It also proposed launching an extensive program for improving coastal fortifications to avoid exposure of the nation to another seaborne invasion. Because the U.S. stood in “character and rank” among the leading nations of the world, said Monroe, “firm resolution” seemed necessary to secure it. “We cannot go back,” he told Congress.
In the weeks that followed, however, Congress began dismantling the armed forces. In the Reduction Bill of 1815, the authorization levels were slashed to only 10,000 men. Organized into a Northern Division and a Southern Division, the shrinking regiments inherited the impossible task of defending almost 2 million square miles of territory with no chief of staff or chain of command. Bureau responsibility for key functions remained ineffective, leaving a significant gap between the general staff and the field commanders. Moreover, the rapid reductions in strength caused a great deal of hardship for the veterans returning home. Given congressional parsimony, the Army languished in the throes of demobilization.
The Navy renewed its warfare against the Barbary pirates, who took American merchantmen as captives. On March 3, 1815, Congress authorized President James Madison to take action against the regency of Algiers. Captain Stephen Decatur led the first squadron of 10 warships, which was followed by a second, even larger squadron of 17 warships under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. Decatur captured two Algerine vessels and took hundreds of prisoners. On June 28, his squadron arrived in Algiers with its prizes. After negotiating a favorable treaty “owing to the dread of our arms,” Decatur sailed for Tunis. He negotiated another agreement whereby the Tunisians pledged to pay financial restitution to the U.S. for their previous attacks on merchantmen. Finally, he demanded and received another treaty from Tripoli, which disavowed the practice of demanding tribute and promised to release prisoners from various nations. As a result, America's 30-year fight to rid itself of piracy along the Barbary Coast ended with the establishment of a free trade zone in the Mediterranean.
After succeeding Madison as president, Monroe tapped the energetic John C. Calhoun of South Carolina to head the War Department. Constrained by the financial panic of 1819, Congress requested that Calhoun make further reductions to military spending. The next year, he responded with an innovative plan based to a large extent upon a concept once proposed by George Washington. Accordingly, the Army needed to maintain the formal organization of regiments along with the full complements of both line and staff officers. In other words, the fixed presence of the officer corps was indispensable for organizing the Army. However, the quantity of enlisted men in active service would be reduced by half. In case of an emergency, this skeletal frame could be doubled in size by increasing numbers without forming entirely new regiments. Thus, a force structure appropriate for wartime would exist dur
ing peacetime at a downsized level.
Even though members of Congress ignored much of Calhoun's plan, the concept of an “expansible” force informed defense planning for the rest of the nineteenth century. On March 2, 1821, Congress passed another Reduction Act, which cut the enlisted strength of the Army by half to 5,586 but reduced the size of the officer corps by only one-fifth to 540. It authorized the retention of a smaller regular force with a disproportionate number of officers while maintaining a structure necessary to form a much larger force. The War Department kept seven regiments of infantry and four regiments of artillery in place, albeit with most companies at half-strength. Despite the drastic cut to the end strength overall, the retention of a proportionally larger officer corps would allow the Army to expand rapidly if war came. Calhoun's plan marked a turning point in military policy, because Congress acknowledged that Army regulars rather than the state militia formed the backbone of national defense.
Moreover, the Reduction Act augmented the leadership of the armed forces. The Northern and Southern Divisions disappeared from the organizational scheme, but an Eastern and a Western Department replaced them. The former received orders from New York, whereas the latter was headquartered in St. Louis. The federal government authorized only one major general, General Jacob J. Brown. Calhoun brought him to Washington D.C. in an esteemed position that later became known as Commanding General of the Army, which he held until his death in 1828. Although unable to tamper with the state militia, the War Department began to create a more centralized system of command and control for the regular Army.
The American Military Page 17
