In early 2011, U.S. forces battled the Taliban for control of Marjah, a city in the Helmand Province of Afghanistan. Partnering with the Afghan National Army, they secured their objective while expanding their activities in the opium-producing region. Civilians entered thereafter to hire residents for governmental and non-governmental projects. They built schools, homes, health clinics, and irrigation canals. An agricultural program encouraged farmers to raise wheat, vegetables, and fruit trees, thereby displacing the poppy fields that funded the insurgency.
Though dispersed by military action, the insurgents found sanctuaries in other parts of the country. Concentrating on the Kandahar Province, U.S. forces launched an offensive to clear, hold, and build once again. Petraeus assessed American progress with optimism: “We've got our teeth in the enemy's jugular now, and we're not going to let go.”
Killing bin Laden
For most Americans, the long hunt for bin Laden remained the most important objective of the Global War on Terror. With each video and audio recording that he released on the lam, distressed males in the Muslim world found new inspiration for jihad. His flight from the “infidels” recalled the exile once endured by the Prophet Mohammed, or so his followers imagined. Over the years, U.S. forces failed to catch al-Qaeda's elusive leader. Their search focused on North and South Waziristan in Pakistan, where intelligence analysts presumed he hid.
Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden's deputy, assumed a greater role in directing al-Qaeda operations from Pakistani enclaves. An advocate for what he called the “World Islamic Front Against Jews and Crusaders,” he maintained contact with terrorists in pursuit of martyrdom. He dreamed of acquiring nuclear, chemical, or biological devices that would annihilate the U.S. He even discussed purchasing “nuclear suitcase bombs from the black market of Central Asia.” While avoiding cell phones and handheld radios, his communication system primarily involved couriers. He somehow survived air strikes by American drones that flew into Pakistan, although lower-level operatives perished in them.
“We will kill bin Laden,” Obama stated during a presidential debate. Once in the White House, he tasked Leon Panetta, the CIA director, with creating a detailed operational plan for upgrading the manhunt. Unfortunately, the trail for “Crankshaft” – the CIA's nickname for the world's most wanted terrorist – appeared cold after his narrow escape from Tora Bora. In the summer of 2010, Panetta received a new lead in regard to the al-Qaeda leader. The CIA tracked a man in Pakistan named Abu Ahmed al-Kuwaiti, who served as bin Laden's courier. Thanks to satellite surveillance, agents monitored his residence in Abbottabad, a small city deep inside Pakistan. For months, they studied his activities behind the high walls that surrounded the three-story main house, a guesthouse, and a few outbuildings. They caught glimpses of a tall, reclusive person, who lived inside the compound.
Though unable to identify the person of interest, Washington D.C. began to plan possible military action. The planning did not include contacting or collaborating with Pakistan, because the government in Islamabad seemed likely to leak the information to America's enemies. In addition to the fortress-like compound, Abbottabad contained the Pakistan Military Academy. Ostensibly, Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence, or ISI, knew something about the conspicuous site and its occupants. The Air Force suggested a strike with a B-2 Spirit bomber, but the risk of collateral damage and Pakistani casualties concerned the Pentagon. Confident in the skill of their assault teams, JSOC wanted to storm the compound with SEALs. During early 2011, the Obama administration weighed the options before taking action.
The commander-in-chief decided to send SEAL Team-6, which officials called the Naval Special Warfare Development Group, or DEVGRU. Under the auspices of the CIA, their operation was code-named Neptune Spear. It involved two MH-60 Black Hawks modified with stealth technology. The helicopters carried 24 SEALs from eastern Afghanistan into northeastern Pakistan. A Pakistani translator as well as a bomb-sniffing dog accompanied them. Furthermore, two MH-47 Chinooks entered Pakistan to provide support to the Americans in the event of an ambush. As the mission commenced, a special electronic warfare aircraft jammed Pakistani radar. An unarmed drone circled high above Abbottabad, thereby capturing real-time video and audio while feeding it to U.S. commanders.
Before the dawning of May 2, 2011, the SEALs reached the compound in Abbottabad. However, the first Black Hawk pitched forward and crashed within the outer wall. Despite the jarring accident, no injuries occurred. The second Black Hawk safely landed as planned in a nearby field. After blowing open the gates, team members sprinted through the courtyard. Their night-vision goggles enabled them to locate their objectives in the darkness. They faced short bursts of hostile fire at the guesthouse but swiftly secured it and entered the main house.
Moving up the narrow stairwell, the SEALs engaged bin Laden on the third floor. Their shots struck his chest and head, which they reported with code-words over their radios. “For God and country,” a SEAL declared to his comrades, “I pass Geronimo, Geronimo E.K.I.A.” In other words, America's enemy was killed in action.
While putting bin Laden's corpse into a body bag, the SEALs secured the entire compound within 40 minutes. They took DNA samples and multiple photographs before interrogating the women and children in the residence. Four other occupants perished in the raid, including al-Kuwaiti and one of bin Laden's sons. One of bin Laden's wives received a wound in her leg. Furthermore, the 38,000-square-foot site yielded intelligence items such as CDs, DVDs, flash drives, memory cards, and computer hardware. The evidence indicated the existence of an active command-and-control center for al-Qaeda, whose leaders plotted to assassinate both Petraeus and Obama in the coming months. Shortly before departing the scene, the SEALs used C-4 charges to detonate the damaged Black Hawk.
The SEALs returned safely to Jalalabad Air Base in Afghanistan. With various tests confirming the identity of the corpse, a military detail soon loaded it onto a V-22 Osprey and flew it to the U.S.S. Carl Vinson in the North Arabian Sea. Americans prepared the body in accordance with Islamic precepts. Afterward, they heaved it into the water.
A month later, al-Qaeda selected al-Zawahiri to lead the terrorist network. Still under U.S. indictment for his previous embassy bombings, he warned of reprisal attacks against Americans for killing bin Laden. While rumors of an internal power struggle spread, the operational planning devolved from the high command to the assorted franchises within Pakistan and around the globe. The appeal of bin Laden's movement survived, but the American military brought a mass murderer of innocent men, women, and children to justice.
Conclusion
The dramatic events of 9/11 aroused the nation, as the armed forces of the U.S. roared into action. Although bin Laden once sneered that American troops were “just a paper tiger,” they lit up his sanctuaries in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom. The Bush administration soon turned their sights upon Iraq, where Hussein defied the armistice that halted the first Gulf War. Even if the allegations about WMD stockpiles proved mistaken, Operation Iraqi Freedom toppled an outlaw regime. The sectarian conflicts overshadowed the American victory, however, while the foot soldiers of the Taliban reentered the Afghan provinces. Operating in two theaters at the same time stressed U.S. forces. Fortunately, Petraeus found effective ways to counter the insurgencies. After the Obama administration refocused upon Afghanistan, killing bin Laden inside Pakistan provided significant momentum to the war effort. Whatever the future of the Global War on Terror, the U.S. degraded the capabilities of al-Qaeda.
Following a decade of fighting in faraway lands, the U.S. began to bring the troops home. For most men and women in uniform, the protracted struggle against international terrorism involved two major military operations undermined by ineffective post-invasion regimens. The American way of war, which accentuated quick and decisive battles, did not initially deliver population security, economic assistance, and stable governance to defeated countries. With armed might unable to end the tumults in
an expedient manner, anti-American ideologies fueled lengthy insurgencies. Nation-building offered new hope, although WMD proliferation remained a grave danger to the world. Approximately 6,000 Americans were killed in action overall, while over 40,000 suffered wounds. The financial costs mounted, thereby exacerbating a fiscal crisis in Washington D.C. Eventually, the doctrine of COIN enabled the military to claim success abroad. On a strategic level, the U.S. achieved measurable progress in a long slog.
Even though diehards persisted in shadowy realms, the U.S. showed unparalleled strength in most facets of military affairs. The American military worked with allies to conduct offensive campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq, which knocked enemy forces off balance. While the Obama administration planned for an exit from the former, the final convoy of U.S. soldiers left the latter as scheduled by 2012. Petraeus, who retired from the Army after a remarkable career that spanned four decades, took charge of the CIA but soon resigned. With federal budget cuts looming, Panetta succeeded Gates as the Secretary of Defense. An armada of drones continued to hit targets inside Pakistan and other nations. Special Forces skillfully disrupted al-Qaeda and its affiliates in an era of persistent conflict. Popular uprisings in Iran, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Bahrain, Yemen, and Syria signified an “Arab Spring,” although fanatical elements sought to exploit the uncertain outcomes.
As the age of globalization reached a point of inflection, America's warriors moved forward together with an extraordinary history of resilience and resourcefulness behind them. The Army, Navy, and Air Force constituted the most advanced military ever to exist on the face of the Earth. Of course, they appreciated a technological edge in almost every domain. Their work reinforced the myth of the mega-machine, which made humans ever more dependent upon tools and tool-makers to act. While undertaking counterterrorist and counterinsurgency operations, they accomplished near-impossible missions that enhanced national security. Some did what fighters in all wars do – kill. Others defended the U.S. in innovative and unconventional ways. With stealth and precision, a few belonged to elite commando units capable of confronting enemy forces anywhere on the planet. Like the legendary knights of yore, their collective sacrifices for the greater good exemplified the noblest form of service.
Essential Questions
1 How did the American military change after 9/11?
2 In what ways were U.S. forces tested in Afghanistan and Iraq?
3 Why was killing bin Laden such an important military objective?
Suggested Readings
Anderson, Terry H. Bush's Wars. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Atkinson, Rick. In the Company of Soldiers: A Chronicle of Combat. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
Bergen, Peter L. The Longest War: The Enduring Conflict between America and Al Qaeda. New York: Free Press, 2011.
Berkowitz, Bruce. The New Face of War: How War Will Be Fought in the 21st Century. New York: Free Press, 2003.
Cloud, David, and Greg Jaffe. The Fourth Star: Four Generals and the Epic Struggle for the Future of the United States Army. New York: Crown, 2009.
Hahn, Peter L. Missions Accomplished? The United States and Iraq since World War I. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Jones, Seth G. In the Graveyard of Empires: America's War in Afghanistan. New York: W. W. Norton, 2009.
Kaplan, Fred. The Insurgents: David Petraeus and the Plot to Change the American Way of War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013.
Lewis, Adrian R. The American Culture of War: The History of U.S. Military Force from World War II to Operation Iraqi Freedom. 2nd edition. New York: Routledge, 2012.
Luttrell, Marcus, with Patrick Robinson. Lone Survivor: The Eyewitness Account of Operation Redwing and the Lost Heroes of SEAL Team 10. New York: Little, Brown, 2007.
May, Ernest R., ed. The 9/11 Commission Report with Related Documents. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2007.
Moyar, Mark. A Question of Command: Counterinsurgency from the Civil War to Iraq. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
Owen, Mark, with Kevin Maurer. No Easy Day: The Autobiography of a Navy Seal. New York: Dutton, 2012.
Ricks, Thomas E. Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq. New York: Penguin, 2006.
Scales, Robert H., Jr., and Williamson Murray. The Iraq War: A Military History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Singer, P. W. Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century. New York: Penguin, 2009.
Wright, Evan. Generation Kill: Devil Dogs, Iceman, Captain America, and the New Face of American War. New York: Putnam, 2004.
Index
ABC-1
Abenaki Indians
Abizaid, John
Able Archer
abolitionists
Abrams, Creighton
Abrams Doctrine
Abu Ghraib
Acadian expulsion
Acheson, Dean
Adams, John
Adams, John Quincy
Adams, Samuel
Adams–Onís Treaty (Transcontinental Treaty)
Advanced Base Force concept
Afghanistan War
Agent Orange
Aguinaldo, Emilio
Aideed, Muhammed Farrah
Air Corps Act
Air Force (establishment)
air mobility concept
air power doctrine
AirLand Battle Doctrine
Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of
al-Awlaki, Anwar
al-Kuwaiti, Abu Ahmed
al-Maliki, Nouri
al-Qaeda
al-Sadr, Muqtada
al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab
al-Zawahiri, Ayman
Alamo, Battle of the
Albany plan
Albright, Madeleine
Alderman, John
Alexander, Clifford
Alexander, E. Porter
Alexander, Keith
Alfred
Alger, Russell
Alien and Sedition Acts
All-Volunteer Force (AVF)
Allen, Ethan
Alliance, Treaty of
Allied Force (Operation)
Allied Powers (Triple Entente)
Almond, Edward
Ambrister, Robert
American Expeditionary Forces (AEF)
American Legion
American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy
American Revolution
Amherst, Jeffrey
Amity and Commerce, Treaty of
amphibious landings, see landing operations doctrine
Ampudia, Pedro de
Anaconda (Operation)
Anaconda Plan
Anbar Awakening
Anderson, Robert
Andersonville prison
André, John
Andrew Doria
Andrews Sisters
Annapolis, see Naval Academy
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
Anti-Comintern Pact
anti-draft movement
Antietam, Battle of
Anvil (Operation)
Anzio, Battle of
Ap Bac, Battle of
Apache Indians
Apache Snow (Operation)
Appomattox surrender
Arab Spring
Arapaho Indians
Arbuthnot, Alexander
Arikara Indians
Arista, Mariano
Aristide, Jean Bertrand
Arlington National Cemetery
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Test (ASVAB)
Armijo, Manuel
Armistead, George
Armistead, Lewis
Armistice Day
Armstrong, John
Army (establishment)
Army aviation
Army Industrial College
Army Medical Museum
Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN)
Army Reserve (formation)
Army of the United Colonies
Army War Colle
ge
Arnold, Benedict
Arnold, H. H. (Hap)
Articles of Confederation
Artillery School of Practice
Aspin, Les
Assize of Arms
Atkinson, Henry
Atlanta campaign
Atlantic, Battle of the
Atlantic Charter
atomic weaponry
Attleboro (Operation)
Attlee, Clement
Attucks, Crispus
Avalanche (Operation)
Axelson, Matthew
Axis Powers
Aztec Club
Bacon, Josiah
Bacon, Lydia
Bacon, Nathaniel
Bainbridge, William
Baker, James
Baker, Newton
Ballou, Sullivan
Bancroft, George
Banks, Nathaniel
banzai
Barbarossa (Operation)
Barbary piracy
Barbour Board
Barclay, Robert
Barney, Joshua
Barnwell, John
Baron, George
Barreaut, Michel
Barron, James
Barron, Samuel
Barton, Clara
Baruch, Bernard
Bascom, George
“Base Force” concept
Bataan, Battle of
Bathurst, Henry
Baum, Friedrich
Bay of Pigs invasion
Beale, Edward
Bear Flag revolt
Beauregard, Pierre G. T.
Bee, Barnard
Beecher Island, Battle of
Beirut bombing
Belknap, William
Belleau Wood, Battle of
Bennington, Battle of
Benson, William
Bent, Charles
Benteen, Frederick
Benton, Jessie
Benton, Thomas Hart
Berkeley, William
Berlin airlift
Berlin crisis
Bernard, Simon
Biddle, William
Big Foot
Big Hole, Battle of the
Big Switch (Operation)
Bill of Rights
Bin Laden, Osama
Bismarck Sea, Battle of the
Black Hawk
The American Military Page 63
