owlflies, 1
oxygen, 23, 25, 49, 79, 86, 107, 181, 188, 190; atmospheric, x–xi, 23, 79, 85, 87, 188; depleted environments, 4; depletion, 96; levels, 5, 16, 25, 49, 79, 85, 87, 96–97, 99, 107; oceanic, 96; toxicity, 25, 190
ozone: enrichment, 181; layer, 49
Paleocene epoch, 205n7
Paleodictyoptera, xii, 80–84, 83, 86, 98, 98, 100, 205n11, 205n13
paleontology, 20–21, 53
paleopteran insects, 71, 81–87, 83, 85, 98
Paleozoic: era, 11, 17–18, 20–21, 27, 54–55, 96, 114; seas, 40, 54; trilobites, 11
Pangaea, xii, 112–13
paper wasps, 126, 162, 165
paralysis, 128, 140, 145–46, 160–62, 165, 179
paranotal lobes, 77, 79–80, 83, 110, 205n10
parasites: blood-feeding, 121; ectoparasitic, 151, 181; internal, 93
parasitic wasps, 10, 135, 139, 151
parasitoids, 136, 139, 158, 178, 181; of ants, 14; defined, 136; external, 140–41; first, 138–40; of insect eggs, 12; internal, 140–45
parental care, 43
pedipalps, 43
Pelecinidae, 10
Pennsylvanian subperiod, 71, 76
period: Cambrian, x, 17–35, 37, 39, 56; Carboniferous, xi–xii, 55, 60, 71–91; Cretaceous, xii; Devonian, 17, 37, 42, 50–69; Jurassic, xiii, 108, 116, 129–52; Ordovician, 27, 32–34, 55; Permian, xii–xiii, 15, 17, 32–33, 39, 82, 90–114, 176; Silurian, xi, 17, 32, 35–51, 54; Triassic, xii, 111, 115–29
Permian: aridity, 102, 113; beetles, xii, 75, 109; communities, 82, 95; damselflies, 98; Early, 94, 105–6, 112; extinctions, 95–99, 101, 104–5, 108, 111–14, 117, 182, 206n3; fin-backed reptiles, 90, 93–94; holocaust, 111; insects, 85; Late, xiii, 95–96, 98, 105–6, 108–11; Middle, 93–94; period, xii–xiii, 15, 17, 32–33, 39, 82, 90–114, 173, 176, 181; scorpionfly diversity, 106; sediments, 112; Triassic boundary, 111, 113
Pertica quadrifaria, 57
pests, 2, 76, 89
Petoskey stones, 53
petroleum, 73–75
Phacops rana, 54–55
Phasmatodea, 122, 123
phenols, 206n15
pheromones, 78, 164
phloem, 82, 102
photosynthesis, 57–58, 77, 102, 189–91
Phthiraptera, 151, 211n15
phyla, 11, 20, 26–27
Pikaia, 18–19, 29, 33, 173
placenta, 142
placoderms, 38
planetary evolution, 188
plankton, 33, 126
plant: bugs, 157; cell development, 138; communities, 2, 103, 181; damage, 103; evolution, 63; feeding, pl. 10; tissues, 113; toxins, 84, 158–60, 166–67
planthoppers, 102, 118, 121–22, 126–27, 129
plants: asexual, 6; dioecious, 211n2; epiphytic, 175, 181, 183, 186; flowering, 2, 15, 103, 117, 121, 155–57, 169, 173, 180–81; land, 37, 56–57; Munnozia, 184; nonvascular, 48; pitcher, 3; terrestrial, 40, 181; tree-like, 69; vascular, 48, 57, 75
Plateosaurus, 118
plate tectonics, 96, 108, 111–13, 154–55, 168, 171, 211n1
Plecoptera, 79, 99, 110, 122
pleuron, 76, 81
poisonous plants, 158–60, 166, 168
pollen, xiii, 116–17, 156, 165; fossil, 156, 172
pollination, 89, 165, 192; fluid, 156; insect-assisted, 156–57, 181; wind, 156
pollinators, 153, 181, 183
pollution, 71
Polydesmida, 47
Polypedilum vanderplanki, 4
portable cases, 107
posteromotorism, 109
Precambrian: continents, 25; era, 55, 181; soft-bodied organisms, 20; rocks, 17
predation pressure, 55
predator: avoidance, xii; swamping, 72–73
predators, 136, 163: ambush, 60; aquatic, 126; Carboniferous, 84, 90; deepwater, 40; defined, 136; Devonian, 54, 81; earthbound, 82; fast-moving, 94; keystone, 2; large, 113, 135; of other insects, pl. 6; Permian, 100; vertebrate, 75, 80, 84, 94; visually-searching, 121, 123; vulnerability to, 87, 146, 158, 164
primates, 3, 162; arboreal, 172; insectivorous, 120–21, 172; tool use by, 172
prolegs, 61
Protodonata, xii, 85–87, 86, 99
protomammals, 94, 96–97, 173, 206n2
Protorthoptera, 99, 110
protowings, 77–79
protozoa, 5–6, 64
Psocoptera, 110, 208n14
pteridosperms, 82
pterodactyls, xii, 14, 85
punctuated equilibrium, 23
pupa, 104–6, 158
pupation chambers, 125–27
quartz, 63, 117
queens, 1, 147, 149, 163–64
quinine, 159
Quito, 170–71, 173, 175
rabbit crocodile, 119–20
radiation: solar, 37; ultraviolet, 42
radio signals, 188
rain forest, ix, 3, 42, 90; canopy, 82, 84, 177
Raphidioptera, 122, 127
Raup, David, 8, 17
reefs, 38–40, 43, 53, 69, 95, 111
reproduction: asexual, 6; indirect, 64; organs of, 60, 105
reproductive isolation, 6
reptiles, 3, 18, 90, 116, 121, 167; age of, 18; first, 90; giant fin-backed, 90, 93–94, 136; lepidosaurian, 204n3 (ch. 5); thecodont, 94
resilience, 113, 169, 181, 190
resins, 206n15
resistance, 5
respiration, 26, 42, 79–80, 181; aerobic, 25, 190; cuticular, 63, 79, 143, 145; tracheal, xi, 45–46, 85, 107, 145
respiratory system, 37, 143
Rhynia, 48
Rhynie, Scotland, 48, 63
Rhyniella praecursor, 63, 204n4 (ch. 4)
Rhyniognatha hirsti, 68
rhyniophytes, 48, 50–51
riddles, 92, 130–32
roaches, xii, 11, 75, 84, 89–90, 99, 110, 114, 118, 122, 147, 206n17
rock crawlers, 11, 100
roots, 48, 57–58, 74, 158
rotifers, 64
Sagan, Carl, 187–88
salamanders, x, 118, 122, 154
saliva, 102, 162
salt tolerance, 3, 59
saltwater, 99
Sanctacaris, 31
San Ramon Biological Reserve, viii, ix–xiv, 21
Saturniidae, 192, pl. 11–12
sawflies, 1, 117, 127–29, 136–38, 157; Mesozoic, 137, 176; xyelid, 1, 116–17, 127, 136
scale insects, 61, 102, 166
scavengers, xi, 2, 46–47, 59, 89, 101, 126, 134, 146
Schmidt Sting Pain Index, 212n9
scents, 152–53, 183
scorpionflies, 3, 95, 105–6, 118, 122, 129, 207nn9–10
scorpions, 11, 20, 30, 36, 39, 41–45, 44, 46, 50–51, 56, 62, 84, 90, 105, 136, 173, 192, 206n16
sea levels, 69, 96, 99
sea scorpions, 34–35, 39, 41, 54, 95, 173
secondary defensive chemicals, 121, 206n15
sediments: bottom, 26–27, 71, 87; carbon-based, 23; marine fossil, 95; mineral, 25; organic, 26, 90; Permian, 112
seed ferns, 73, 90, 95, 206n15
seeds, 54, 77, 158, 163, 166, 175; dispersers of, 129, 166, 192
segmentation, 26, 29, 35, 41, 45, 60, 85, 93, 191
sensory systems, 28, 105
sex determination, 128, 164–65
shells, 20, 26; of insect eggs, 138, 142
shorelines, 3, 25, 40–42, 45, 48–49, 51, 55–56, 65, 67, 90, 96, 112, 129, 175, 181
shrimp, 20, 31, 54
silica, 75
silk, 106–8, 124, 137, 143, 144, 145–46, 158, 183, 212, 211n3; glands, 106, 124, 145, 210n9
Silurian: arthropods, xi; coral reefs, 38–39; Early, 37, 42; landscape, 48; Late, xi, 15, 41, 48–49, 57, 69, 175; myriapods, 16, 62; period, xi, 17, 32, 35–51, 54, 96, 114, 175, 181; seas, 39; sediments, 48; scorpions, 41–45, 173; trilobites, 39
silverfish, xi, 61, 68–69, 76–77, 80, 205n5, 205n9
simplicity, 92, 113, 213n2
skeletal: diversity, 27;
systems, 26, 37
skeletons, 20, 25, 190; external, x, 11, 16, 20, 27–29, 31, 37, 87, 93, 181, 190–91; first, 17, 20; internal, 28
snakeflies, 118, 122, 127, 129
snakes, x, 43, 127, 154
snowball earth, 24–25
snow fields, 100–101
social insects, 3, 15, 117, 121, 128, 146–47, 160, 162–66, 176
societies: female-dominated, 164; insect, 147, 162–67; termite, 146–49
soil, 117; arthropods, 74–75, 79; insects, 78, 80; producers, 2, 149
soils: Devonian, 59, 64, 69; microbial, 47–48, 50, 57–58, 63; organic, xi, 58
solar radiation, 37, 45, 78, 100, 181
songs: of amphibians, 76; of birds, 129; of insects, 122, 129
species, 5; accumulation, 182; biological, 6, 8–9; cryptic, 8–9; ecological, 7, 9; evolutionary, 6–7, 9; human, 188; hypothesis, 8–9; insect, 1, 188; keystone, 128; morphological, 7–8; new, 8, 130, 177–79, 184; ocean-dwelling, 95; originations, 145, 180–81; process of naming, 8, 130; richness of, 2, 94–95, 111, 171; swarming, 70–73, 120–21; vertebrate, 3, 10; weedy, 2, 112
species concept: biological, 6, 8–9; ecological, 7, 9; evolutionary, 6–7, 9; morphological, 7–8
sperm: cells, 44, 48, 128; storage, 128, 164
spermatheca, 128, 164
spermatophores, 44, 48, 64–65, 73
spiders, 11, 20, 31, 43, 56, 62, 84, 90, 154, 206n16, 206n1 (ch. 6)
spines, 28, 35, pl. 11
spinnerettes, 145
spiracles, x–xi, 49, 60, 145
spittlebugs, pl. 7
sponges, 26
sporangia, 48, 57, 100
spores, 50, 77, 80, 82, 100, 205n11
springtails, xi, 3, 4, 63–66, 64, 68–69, 79, 146, 204n4 (ch. 4)
squids, 33–35, 38, 173; cephalopod, 33–34, 41, 54
stars, 186, 188
startle response, pl. 12
stasis, 22
steroids, 159
stick insects, 122, 123, 157; Australian titan, 131
stinger, 43, 105, 128, 137, 160–61, 161, 165, 167–68
stink bugs, 126, 154
stomata, 49
stoneflies, 3, 79–80, 89, 99, 106–7, 109, 110, 117, 122
storage excretion, 84
streams, 106, 108–9, 112, 118, 124, 126, 174–76
Streblidae, 13
stromatolites, 26
stylets, 102
styli, 67, 68
subterranean species, 3
sulfuric aerosols, 97
sun, 23, 174, 188
sunlight, 78, 89–90, 100, 109, 169, 174–75
supercontinents, 108, 112–13, 154
supernova, 37, 168
surface tension, 177
swamps, 15, 73–75, 81, 84, 132
swarms, 70–73, 85, 120–21, 150
symbiont hypothesis, 210n11
symbiosis, 75, 90, 142, 147–48, 192
symbiotic microorganisms, 75, 147–48
symmetry, 30
symphylans, 45, 47–48, 50–51
systematic entomology, 130
tagmosis, 35, 45, 59
tangle-winged flies, 157
tannins, 159, 176, 206n15
tardigrades, 22, 64
temperature tolerance, 4, 100–101
teratocytes, 143
termites, 3, 11, 75, 146–49, 148, 151, 163–64, 172, 176, 210nn10–11; first, 146; families of, 149; queen, 1, 149
terpenoids, 159
terrestrial: animals, 40; ecosystems, xiv, 2, 35, 37, 51, 56, 191; environment, 2; insects, 113; nymphs, 80; plants, 40; predators, 84; vertebrates, 37
Tertiary, 18, 168
tetrapods, 51–52, 54, 61
Tettigoniidae, 101, pl. 2
thecodonts, 94
thermoregulation, xii, 77–78, 129
thorax, xi, 11, 59–60, 67, 76, 80–81, 104
thrips, 1, 103, 111, 129, 157
Thysanoptera, 103
Thysanura, 68, 205n5, 205n8
ticks, 11
tidal pools, 43
tides, 25, 27, 40, 43
time: machine, ix; travel, 56
Tinkerbella nana, 12
Tipulidae, 4, 10
titan insects, 122, 129, 150
Titanoptera, 122
tool use, 162, 172, 213n2
toxins: deep-sea, 96, 99; defensive, 84, 158–60, pl. 8; plant, 166–67
tracheae, xi, 79–80, 85
tracheal respiration, xi, 45–46
tracheal system, xi, 80, 85; gas-filled, 45, 143
tracheids, 49
tree-ferns, 73, 175
treehoppers, 102, 163, 166
trees: Archaeopteris, 58; broadleaf, 115; cloud forest, 174–75; dead, 74–75, 110; deciduous, 115; first, xi, 57–58; gingko, 95; petrified, 117
Triassic: communities, 95; conifers, 117; deserts, 151; dinosaurs, 118–21, 124, 150; Early, 95; forests, 117, 129; insect orders, 122; Late, xiii, 118–27, 129, 136; Middle, 112; period, xii, 111, 115–29
Triceratops, xiii, 116, 154, 166
Trichophycus pedum, 25–26, 29
Trichoptera, 99, 106–8, 111, 122
trilobites, 11, 15, 17–22, 21, 26–27, 30, 32–35, 41, 45, 95, 111, 114, 207n4; age of, 18, 33; body forms of, 19; Cambrian, 19, 21; decline of, 33; Devonian, 54; Elrathia, 21; extinction of, 32, 114; first, 17; fossils of, 20–22; frog-eyed, 54; immature, 34; Isotelus, 34; last, 18, 95, 114; molting, 43; molting process of, 34; planktonic, 27; predatory, 34, 173; Silurian, 38–39; species diversity of, 29, 32, 54; tracks of, 19
trophallaxis, 148, 164
trophamnion, 142–43
tropical forests, xiv, 1, 15, 42, 129, 183, 203n1 (ch. 1); cloud, 66, 171; complexity of, 173; dry, pl. 1; rain, 3, 42; wet, 73, 81
true bugs, xiv, 11, 95, 118, 122, 126–27
true flies, xiv, 118, 122
true insects, 68–69, 204n4 (ch. 4)
turtles, 118
twisted-wing parasites, 11
Tyrannosaurus, xiii, 34, 116, 133–36, 154, 166–69
ultraviolet radiation, 42, 49–50
universe, 185, 187–88, 190
Varanger ice age, 24, 208n15
variation, 7, 177, 191
vascular system, 75, 102–3
veins, 71, 79, 81, 106
Velociraptor, 133–35, 209n3
venoms: paralyzing, 140–41, 145, 161, 179; scorpion, 43; wasp, 138–40, 142, 145, 160, 167
ventilation, 107
vertebrates, 18, 19, 28–29, 32, 53, 55, 73, 75–76, 80, 94, 118, 120, 122, 129–30, 149, 151, 173, 205n12; ancestor of, 18; biomass of, 3, 128; families of, 94; flying, 85; species of, 3, 10; terrestrial, 37
viruses, 142, 210n7
vitamins, 120, 208n4
volcanoes, 24, 57, 96–97, 112–13, 117, 168, 190, 207n5, 212n11
walking sticks, 118, 122–23, 123, 131, 157
warm-bloodedness, 94, 111, 133, 206n2
wasps, 11, 74–75, 118, 122, 128–29, 151, 156, 183; dryinid, 161; euphorine, 176, 179; fairyfly, 13; hyperdiversity of, xiv, 11; Ilatha, 184; long-tailed, 192; megalyrid, 130, 139; Mesozoic, 136; microscopic, 13, 103; Napo, 178, 213–14n5; Neoneurus, 13; nest-provisioning, 128, 160–62; parasitic, 10, 117, 135–36, 138–46, 139, 151, 176–80; social, 15, 117, 128, 162, 164, 167, 176; solitary, 160–62; stinging, 128, 137, 160–63; wood, 135–37; ypsistocerine, 1
waste: larval, 106, 143; nitrogen, 84, 106; products, 26, 30
water, x, 174, 176; bears, 22; boatmen, 4; excess, 102; lilies, 156–57; loss, 37; striders, 3, 59, 126; vapor, 188
wax, 162, 183
webspinners, 1, 11, 118, 122, 124, 125
weevils, xiii, 10
white-legged millipede, 31
Wilson, Edward O., 1, 2, 154, 183
wing: base, 88; buds, 71, 76, 104; development, 104; flexing, 113; origins, 77–80; patterns, 78, 82–85, 83; pigments, 84; tracheae, 80; twisting, 88–89; veins, 71, 79, 81, 106
winglessness, 67–68, 76, 100, 162, 175
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wings, xi, 14, 60, 69–73, 76–90, 104–5, 116, 176, 190; beetle, 109; earliest, 81–82, 175, 181; fringed, 103; sound-producing, 78, 122
wood, 74–75, 107, 109; borers, xii–xiii, 74–75, 109, 120; dead, 90, 110, 138; pulp, 162; roaches, 75, 90, 110, 147; wasps, 135–38
wood-boring beetles, xii–xiii, 74–75, 109, 120, 135, 138, 179
woody: debris, 175; shrubs, 156; tissues, 50
worms, 19, 26, 30, 43, 46, 58, 176
Wyoming, 14, 115; Bighorn Basin, 20; Como Bluff, 131, 133; Laramie Valley, 130; Medicine Bow, 131; Shoshoni, 17; snakeflies, 127, Thermopolis, 18; willow bogs, 116; Wind River Canyon, 17
xyelid sawflies, 1, 116–17, 118, 127, 136
xylem, 82
Yanayacu, 171, 173–80, 184–86
yellow pan traps, 177, 179
Yellowstone, 4, 24
yolk, 142
ypsistocerine wasps, 1
zorapterans, 1, 11
Zygentoma, 68, 76–77
Planet of the Bugs: Evolution and the Rise of Insects Page 29
