34 For these and other anti-Jewish laws, see James Carroll, Constantine’s Sword: The Church and the Jews; A History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001).
35 With respect to pagan objects of worship (though, in this case, not their worshipers), a similar view is propounded by the great theologian Augustine: “God who speaks truth has both predicted that the images of the many, the false gods, are to be overthrown and commands that it be done.” Elsewhere he insists that this “is what God wants, God commands, God proclaims.” See Augustine, Epistle 91 and Sermon 14.6, quoted in Ramsay MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 169.
36 Drake, “Lambs into Lions,” 35.
37 Themistius, Oration 5, translation from Peter Heather and David Mondur, eds., Politics, Philosophy and Empire in the Fourth Century: Select Orations of Themistius (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2001).
38 Translation by H. de Romestin, “Memorial of Symmachus,” in Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, vol. 10, Ambrose: Select Works and Letters, Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., reprint ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994).
39 See Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984).
40 Michele Renee Salzman, “Rethinking Pagan-Christian Violence,” in Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices, H. A. Drake, ed. (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006), 285.
41 Peter Brown, Authority and the Sacred: Aspects of the Christianization of the Roman World (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 39.
AFTERWORD
1 On how Christian bishops came to replace pagan intellectuals as the Roman aristocrats who held real power—seen, for example, in personal access to and influence over the emperor—see Peter Brown, Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity: Towards a Christian Empire (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992).
2 As quoted in Raymond van Dam, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 22.
3 I have taken these quotations from Van Dam’s insightful study, Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge.
4 For a discussion of the role of Theodosius I in the loss of freedom and the rise of intolerance, see the readable account of Charles Freeman, A.D. 381: Heretics, Pagans, and the Dawn of the Monotheistic State (New York: Overlook Press, 2008). On the specific question of Christian opposition to Jews and Judaism, see James Carroll, Constantine’s Sword: The Church and the Jews; A History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2001).
APPENDIX
1 Rodney Stark. The Rise of Christianity: How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996).
2 See the articles published as a collection in the Journal of Early Christian Studies 6 (1998), especially Elizabeth A. Castelli, “Gender, Theory, and The Rise of Christianity: A Response to Rodney Stark,” 227–57.
3 See Castelli, “Gender, Theory, and The Rise of Christianity.”
4 Candida Moss, The Myth of Persecution: How Early Christians Invented a Story of Martyrdom (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2014).
5 I am exceedingly grateful to James Bell for constructing a population growth calculator for me and for his interesting reflections on the rates of Christian growth.
Index
A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.
Abgar, king of Edessa, 144–45
abortion, 212, 290
Achaea, 260
Acropolis, 96, 260–61, 279, 280, 281, 282
Acts of Fructuosus, 204
Acts of the Apostles, 41–42, 43, 46, 57, 60, 75, 126, 141, 142, 162, 180–81
Paul’s conversion in, 50–52
Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs, 197–98
adhesion, 121
adultery, 212
afterlife, 84–87, 98, 107, 158–59, 240, 266
fear of, 152–56
Against the Christians (Porphyry), 204–5
Against the Galileans (Julian), 250
Agora, 279–80, 281, 282
Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, 224, 225, 226
Alexandria, 95, 96, 169, 224, 249
Christian violence in, 260–65
Allat (pagan goddess), 9–10, 11, 12
Ambrose, bishop of Milan, 244
Ananias, 52
Anastasia, 23–24
Anatolia, 99
Annals (Tacitus), 161, 198
Antakya, 63
Antigone (Sophocles), 2
Antioch, 63, 248
Antony, Mark, 9
Apamea, 11
Aphrodite, 231
Apocalypse of Peter, 153–54, 268
Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, 145
Apollo, 24–25
Apollonius of Tyana, 231
Apology (Tertullian), 156–57, 162–63
Apology of Socrates (Plato), 206
Apuleius, 122
Arch of Constantine, 33, 34
Areopagus, 281, 282
Arianism, 36, 224–27, 246, 249, 252, 270
Arius, 224, 225, 227
Arnold, Matthew, 1–3, 4
Artemis, 114, 145–46, 257–58, 260
Asia Minor, 112
atheism, 92–94, 188–90, 209–11
Athena (Greek goddess), 10
Athenagoras of Athens, 115, 189, 208, 211
Athena Nike, Temple of, 280
Athens, 96, 279–82
Augustine of Hippo, 114–15, 151–52, 154
Augustus, Roman emperor, 18, 100, 101, 273
Aurelian, Roman emperor, 9, 17, 24, 113
Avalos, Hector, 137
Bacchanalia, 89–91, 161, 179, 211
Bacchus, 89–91, 161, 211
Bagnall, Roger, 168–69
baptism, 35, 98, 127, 240
Barnabas, 62, 267
Barnes, Timothy, 239
bedbugs, 145
Bel, temple of, 11
Bethlehem, 47, 213, 232
Bible, 89
Bithynia-Pontus, 161
blasphemy, 50
Boniface VIII, pope, 284
Bowersock, Glen, 250
Brown, Amelia Robertson, 260
Brown, Peter, 244–45, 276
Bruce, Thomas, 280
Burckhardt, Jacob, 32
Byzantium, 228–29
Caecilian, bishop of Carthage, 222–23
Caligula, Roman emperor, 18, 100
cannibalism, 191, 192–93, 212
Capitoline Hill, 101
Caracalla, Roman emperor, 101
Carthage, 197–98, 222
catacombs, 179
Cato, 87
Celsus, 132–34, 154, 167, 210
ceremonial rape, 90
charity, 136
childbirth, 86
children, 86
“choice,” 120–22
Christ, see Jesus Christ
Christianity, 35–36, 82, 89, 103–4, 112, 113
accused of atheism and superstition, 92–93
as “all-encompassing,” 127–28
apocalyptic worldview of, 117–18
apologists for, 206–15
attraction of community of, 134–37
Celsus’s attack on, 132–34
coercion by, 253–56, 274
Constantine’s conversion and, 13–38
conversion to, see conversions
cruel streak of, 237
demographics of early, 167–70
Diocletian persecution of, 217–18
as diverse phenomenon, 128
doctrine in, 83
early growth of, 105
early revolution of, 4–6
&nb
sp; emphasis on true knowledge of, 266–67
as engine of cultural transformation, 5
evangelism of, 126
exclusivity of, 98, 99, 109, 115–16, 120–22, 125–27, 256, 265
explaining triumph of, 6–8
explanations for success of, 106–9
fourth century numbers of, 105
as global, 87–88
growth of, 30, 160–72
growth rates of, 168–73, 243, 287–94
as immoral, 190–94
Imperial persecution of, 198–206
intolerance within, 253–77
legislation against, 201–4
losers in rise of, 8–12
as missionary religion, 116–20
as mystery cult, 98–99
nature of converts to, 132–34
pagan converts to, 75–76
Paul’s significance to, 71–73
persecution of, 156–57, 161, 178–216, 265–66
pleas for tolerance by, 271–74
Pliny’s persecution of, 183–88
proto-orthodox tradition in, 129–30
as religion of love, 118
Roman persecution of, 16, 18, 86
Roman population of, 160–77
secrecy of meetings of, 193
seen as atheists, 188–90
as state religion, 250–53
Victorian era doubt of, 1–3, 4
Chrysostom, John, bishop of Constantinople, 164
churches, 95, 135, 165–66, 231
Church History (Eusebius), 218–19, 235, 261
Church of the Ascension, 232
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 231–32
Church of the Nativists, 232
Cilicia, 46
circumcision, 44, 65, 112
Cirta, 134
cities, ancient, 63
City of God (Augustine of Hippo), 151
civic cults, 127, 134–35
communion, 127
Constans, Roman emperor, 245–46, 254, 270
Constantia, 219
Constantine, Roman emperor, 7–8, 9, 20, 39–40, 42, 76, 81, 105, 113, 117, 135, 165, 178, 205, 206, 215–16, 217–42, 243, 250, 253, 258, 265, 269, 275, 283, 284, 293
as advocate for faith, 230–32
baptism of, 239–40
baptism refused by, 33, 35
coinage of, 32–33, 34
conversion of, 13–38, 176–77, 241
Council of Nicaea by, 36
death of, 239–40
Edict of Milan and, 219–21
family executed by, 33, 238–39
harshness of, 236–39
henotheism of, 30, 32
involvement in theological disputes by, 36–38, 221–27
labarum of, 27–28
lack of early records of, 23
march on Rome by, 22
and Maxentius, 21–23
military and political activities of, 227–30
Milvian Bridge and, 29, 31–33, 35, 219, 241, 283
paganism of, 25–26, 32–33
panegyrist to, 24–25
rise to power of, 17–21
sincerity of conversion of, 32–38
visions of, 22–31
Constantine II, Roman emperor, 245–46
Constantinople, 164, 228–30, 248
Constantius, Roman emperor, 19, 20–21, 23–24, 26, 113, 218, 245, 269
Constantius II, Roman emperor, 9, 240, 245–46, 247–48, 249, 254, 270, 275
Conversion (Nock), 121
conversions, 14–15, 29, 110, 121, 126, 160, 162, 176, 243–44, 247, 287–94
apocryphal tales of, 144–48
coercive, 244
definitions of, 108–9
demographics of, 167–70
family, 172–73, 244
miracles as incentive for, 131–59
role of afterlife in, 152–56
role of miracles in, 139–44
Corinth, 41, 59, 68, 180, 291–92
Corinthians, 52, 61–62, 68, 71, 133
1 Corinthians, 52, 174
Cornelius, bishop of Rome, 164, 165
Council of Arles, 223
Council of Nicaea, 36, 226–27, 246, 252, 275
Crisis of the Third Century, 17
Crispus, 28, 238–39, 245, 253
crucifixion, 68
Cult centers, 114
cultic acts, 82–84, 94, 103, 127, 197, 202, 203
cult statues, 66–67, 95, 96, 210–11, 229, 277, 285
defacement of, 258
cultus deorum, 83
“curse tablets,” 92
Cybele, cult of, 99
Cynegius, Maternus, 11, 259, 261, 276
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, 189–90, 211
Cyril, 264–65
Cyril of Alexandria, 250
daimones, 80, 82, 100
Damascus, 46, 51–52
Dead Sea Scrolls, 48
Deaths of the Persecutors (Lactantius), 28
Decius, Roman emperor, 201–3, 266
decurions, 167
deification, 100–101
Demeas, 257–58
Demeter, 97
demons, 210–11
Deuteronomy, 53, 255, 257
Dialogue with Trypho (Julian), 213–14
diaspora, 43
Diocletian, Roman emperor, 16, 17–19, 20, 21, 23, 35, 134, 204–6, 217, 222, 227–28, 233, 241, 253, 266, 274–75
Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, 138–39
disease, 86
divination, 83–84, 94, 103, 251
Divine Institutes (Lactantius), 253–54
doctrines, 82, 83, 84, 94
Dodds, E. R., 106, 135
dominance, culture of, 5
Domitian, Roman emperor, 200
Donation of Constantine, 284
Donatist controversy, 36, 221–24
Donatus, 222
“Dover Beach” (Arnold), 1–3
Drake, Harold, 34, 38, 165, 220, 223, 236, 265, 270, 271
ecclesiastical organization, 107–8
Edessa, 144–45
Edict of Milan, 35, 206, 219–21
Edict of Toleration, 218–19
Egypt, 67, 75, 168–69
Elgin Marbles, 280
Elijah (prophet), 262
Elysian Fields, 84
Ephesus, 114, 145–46, 257–58, 260
Epicureanism, 188
Epicureans, 85
equestrians, 167
Erechtheion, 280
Essenes, 39
ethics, 82, 83, 84, 94, 111, 237
Etruria, 90
Eucharist, 98
Euripides, 78, 280
Eusebius, 23, 25–28, 29, 138–39, 143–44, 164, 200, 218–19, 228, 229, 231–32, 233, 243–44
evangelism, 116–20, 176
Exodus, 67, 257
exposure, 212
family cults, 127
Fausta, 33, 238–39
Firmicus Maternus, 254–55, 257, 270
Fotis (char.), 122
Fox, Robin Lane, 134, 163
Frederick II, king of Sicily, 284
Fronto, Marcus Cornelius, 191
Galatia, 42
Galatians, 53, 56, 61
Galen, 162
Galerius, Roman emperor, 19, 20, 21, 26, 31, 33, 35, 205–6, 218–19, 233, 238
Galilee, 74
Gallienus, Roman emperor, 204
Gallus, 245, 246
Gaul, 247
Gaza, 260
genius, as term, 101
George (Arian bishop), 249
Gibbon, Edward, 106–8
“God-fearers,” 117
Golden Ass, The (Apuleius), 122–25
Goodman, Martin, 117, 118
Gratian, Roman emperor, 273
Great Persecution, 204–6, 217–19, 233, 253–54
Gregory IX, pope, 284
Gregory of Nazianzus, 255–56
Gregory of Nyssa, 148, 150
Gregory the Wonderworker, 118, 148–50, 152
Hadrian, Roman emperor, 200
Hadrian’s Wall, 20
Harnack, Adolf von, 105, 136, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 176
Harrill, J. Albert, 56
health care, 137–39, 290
Health Care and the Rise of Christianity (Avalos), 137
heaven, 154, 155
Helena (Constantine’s mother), 23, 231–32, 239
hell, 154, 155, 158–59, 237, 266
henotheism, 24, 81–82, 111–16
Hephaestus, Temple of, 279–80, 282
heresy, heretics, 84, 94, 270
Herodian, 162
Hesiod, 78
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The (Gibbon), 106–8
History of the Expansion of Christianity, A (Latourette), 106
Hock, Ronald, 62
Homer, 78, 84, 215
Hopkins, Keith, 173, 174–75
Hypatia, 263–65
identity markers, 120–21
idols, 66–67
Iliad (Homer), 78
Illyricum, 58
immortality, 107
imperial cults, 99–103, 127, 203
incest, 192, 193
infanticide, 212, 290
initiation ceremonies, 97–98
insula, 62
Isaiah (prophet), 47–48, 55, 56, 60, 66, 67
ISIS, 8–9, 11
Isis (god), 97, 122, 123–24, 125
Isis cult, 98
Islam, 88
Israel, 46, 48, 67, 74, 99
James, 52, 75
James, William, 108
Jerusalem, 46, 49, 56, 58, 141, 142, 231–32
as first Christian community, 74–75
Jesus Christ, 7, 36, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48–49, 52–53, 65, 72, 117, 118, 141, 144, 153, 158, 162, 195, 213, 214, 215, 225, 232, 265, 268, 281
in Constantine’s vision, 27, 29
death of, 45–46
as fulfillment of Judaism, 56–57
intolerance of, 267
nature of, 224–27
Paul’s message about, 67–70
resurrection of, 49, 53–54, 68–69, 72, 74, 281
as sacrifice, 53–54
second coming of, 69
Jews, 194
John, 141–42, 269
John, Gospel of, 225, 267
John the Baptist, 44, 262
John the son of Zebedee, 145–46
Jovian, Roman Emperor, 251, 272, 275
Judaism, 6, 15, 39, 42–45, 72–73, 77, 81, 88, 111–12, 115, 125, 127, 135, 141, 180, 188, 213, 214, 256
apocalyptic worldview of, 44–45
Christian intolerance toward, 267–68
conversion to, 65
converts to, 116–17
covenant of, 43–44
Jesus as fulfillment of, 56–57
The Triumph of Christianity Page 36
