22 In more detail, see Heather, “Client Management.”
23 See now Peter J. Heather, Empires and Barbarians: Migration, Development and the
Creation of Europe (London: Macmillan, 2009), chap. 2.
24 Wolfram, Goths, 62ff.
25 D. H. Green, Language and History in the early Germanic World (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1998).
26 Chnodomarius: Ammianus 16.12.60. On the warband excavated at Ejsbøl Mose,
see Mogens Ørsnes, “The Weapon Find in Ejsbøl Mose at Haderlev: Preliminary Re-
port,” Acta Archaeologica 34 (1963): 232–48. For an example of retinue and enforcement,
Frontier Defense 245
see Peter Heather and John Matthews, trans., The Goths in the Fourth Century, Trans-
lated Texts for Historians (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1991), 5.
27 Heather, Empires and Barbarians, 3.
28 For an introduction, see L. Hedeager, “The Evolution of Germanic Society 1–400
AD,” in First Millennium Papers: Western Europe in the First Millennium, ed. R.F.J. Jones,
J.H.F. Bloemers, S. L. Dyson, and M. Biddle, 129–44, B.A.R. International Series 401
(Oxford, 1988).
29 Ammianus 17.12.9–11; compare the famous apoplectic fit of the emperor Valentin-
ian I when barbarian envoys failed to show him sufficient respect: Ammianus 30.6.8.
30 Above note 20.
31 Drinkwater, Alamanni, has recently argued that the Alamanni offered no threat
at all, but this is to move from one extreme to another. On the agendas of the Gothic
Tervingi, see in more detail Heather, Goths and Romans, 3.
32 The events of 376 are well documented in, among other sources, Ammianus 31.3ff.
The events of 405–10 have to be reconstructed, but again, the most plausible recon-
struction is that a second westward movement of Huns was the fundamental cause
of the exodus onto Roman soil: Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, 4–5, with Peter J.
Heather, “Why Did the Barbarian Cross the Rhine?,” Journal of Late Antiquity (forth-
coming, 2009), responding to the arguments of those who have attempted in the mean-
time to come up with alternative explanations of the invasions of the Roman west in
the period 405–8.
33 As is shown, for instance, by the defeats in 386 and 405 of two Gothic refugee lead-
ers, Odotheus and Radagaisus, who attempted to force their way across the Roman
frontier by themselves. These examples, and the aggressive imperial response to the
more successful, clustered invasions, show that this period saw no fundamental shifts
in Roman policies to outsiders, as was argued famously by Walter Goffart, “Rome,
Constantinople, and the Barbarians in Late Antiquity,” American Historical Review 76
(1981): 275–306.
34 Visigoths: Heather, Goths and Romans, 6. Vandals-Alan alliance: Heather, Fall of the
Roman Empire, 5–6.
35 For introductions to the Hunnic Empire and its activities, see Otto J. Maenchen-
Helfen, The World of the Huns, edited by Max Knight (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1973), and E. A. Thompson, The Huns, rev. ed., People of
Europe Series (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995).
36 The process is examined in more detail in Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, chaps.
9–10.
37 Heather, Empires and Barbarians, esp. chaps. 2, 10, and 11.
246 Heather
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank my fellow contributors for their professionalism and
skill in helping to put this volume together—as well as for their
shared interest in making the knowledge of the ancient world more
accessible to the modern. Robert Tempio, classics editor at Princeton
University Press, first suggested to me that I consider editing a prequel
to Princeton’s hallowed Makers of Modern Strategy editions, and he was
largely responsible for the conception of the volume. Deborah Tegar-
den at Princeton did a marvelous job as editor, both in reviewing the
manuscript and preparing the essays for publication. Tobiah Waldron
compiled an excellent index. My assistant Jennifer Heyne helped with
both the copy editing and final proof correction.
Finally, I wish to gratefully acknowledge Bill and Nancy Myers, and
their children, Mary Myers Kauppila and George Myers, for their finan-
cial support in the preparation of this volume. In addition to their inter-
est in the humanities at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, the
Myers family members have also long demonstrated their appreciation
of scholarship in the classics—especially its application to contempo-
rary history.
Victor Davis Hanson
The Hoover Institution
Stanford, California
November 2009
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Index
abolitionism, 191
Egypt and, 120; empire building and,
Abulites, 125
118–35; enthronement of, 119; failures of,
Achaea, 166
118, 122–23, 132; founding cities and, 127–28;
Achaean League, 189
Gordian knot and, 120, 124; Hellenization
Acropolis of Athens: defense of, 59–61, 79n2;
and, 118, 130–35; India and, 122–23; military
Mouseion hill and, 144; new temple
brilliance of, 118–9, 124; mutiny of men
construction and, 45; Odeion of Pericles
and, 122, 123; occupational policies of, 6,
and, 145; sacred olive tree of, 83n28; shrine
9–10, 126–32; Opis mutiny and, 129–30;
of Athena and, 41; temple burnings and,
Oracle of Zeus and, 120; Philotas affair
27; treasury 35
and, 121–22; preemption and, 100; psycho-
Ada, 126
logical tactics of, 119–20, 123, 129–30, 133; as
Adrianople, battle of, 3
regent, 119; religion and, 120, 124, 131–32;
Aedui, 211, 214, 216
Roxane and, 121, 123, 128–29; satrap system
Aegean, ix, 4, 85n41; Greco-Persian Wars and,
and, 125–29, 134; as son of Zeus, 120; spice
13, 16, 19–20, 23, 32–33, 35, 40, 42; pirates
trade and, 133; transition regime and,
and, 33; Second Athenian League and,
125–26; transpopulation policy and, 127
72–73; trade importance of, 32
Alexandria, Egypt, 127–28, 134
Aegina, 186
Algerian War of Independence, 202
Aegospotami, battle of, 67, 85n37
American Civil War, 191
Aeneas the Tactician, 75, 154–55, 157
Ammon, 120
Aeschylus, 28
Amphipolis, 155
Afghanistan, 6, 122–23, 215
Amyntas, 127
Africa, 3, 166, 186, 210, 221, 239–40
Anabasis (Xenophon), 139
Against Verres (Cicero), 176
Anatolia, 12, 189, 192, 199
Agesilaus, 90n64, 95–97, 100, 105, 142
Andriscus, 189
Agesilaus (Plutarch), 100
Ankara, 120
agora, 144–51
Antigonus, 125
agriculture, 96, 113n3, 143, 190
Antioch, 134
Ahura Mazda, 17–18, 26
Antiochus, 194
Alamanni, 232, 235, 244n5
Apamea, 194
Alans, 239
Aphrodite, 177
Alcibiades, 53, 100
Apis, 132
Alcidamas, 191
Apollo, 37
Alexander the Great, 2, 8, 93, 223; Aristotle
Aquilius, Manius, 199
and, 130; assassination of Philip II and, 119;
Aramaic, 173
Bactrian campaigns of, 121–29, 134; battle
Arcadia, 97, 104, 104–6, 116n19, 144
of Gaugamela and, 119–20, 124–25; battle
Arcadian League, 154
of Granicus and, 119–20, 123; burning
Archelaus, 176
of Persepolis and, 120–22; Companion
archers, 151, 172
Cavalry and, 119; consolidation challenges
Archidamaus, 103, 149
and, 6; Darius and, 120–21, 124; death of,
archon, 64
123–24; Diodorus on, 127–28; disloyalty to,
Ardis, 16
126–27, 134; economic policies and, 132–33;
Areia, 121, 124
Argives, 37, 66
and, 34; Themistocles and, 58–59, 70 ( see
Argos, 69, 71, 139, 151, 155, 186
also Themistocles); Thirty Tyrants and, 67,
Ariovistus, 211, 213–14, 218
139, 151; tribute payments and, 34–35, 38, 45;
Aristides, 81n16
urban fighting and, 139–42, 156–57
Aristobulus, 174
Athenodorus, 130
Aristonicus of Pergamum, 189, 192
Athens, 21, 95; capture by Mardonius and,
Aristonike, 60
60–61; conquest of, 67–68; democracy and,
Aristophanes, 94
94; empire building and, 70; fortifications
Aristotle, 74, 130, 187, 190
of, 58–78, 125; as hegemon, 33; increasing
Arminius, 165, 167
glory of, 63–66; interstate system and, 59,
armor, 2, 41, 139, 149, 153, 196
63, 69, 71–73, 77, 86n43, 87n50, 88n58; Long
Arrian, 126
Walls and, 5, 52, 59, 63, 65–70, 73, 76–77,
Arsinoë, 131
84nn29,30,32, 85n40; Lysander and, 67–68;
Arsites, 119
naval power and, 58–60, 63–65; Piraeus
Arta, 17
and, 139 ( see also Piraeus); rebuilding of, 61,
Artabazus, 125, 127
69, 72–78. See also Acropolis of Athens
Artaxerxes, 69–70
Atrebates, 214
Artaxerxes V, 121, 133
Attica, 44, 72; defense of, 73; equality and,
Asander, 125
22; fortifications and, 58–59, 75, 91n69;
Ashdown, battle of, 3
Long Walls and, 65; Persians and, 23–24;
Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, 101
preemption and, 103; Spartans and, 21, 68;
assassinations, 18, 119, 141, 168, 175, 207, 182n22,
Themistocles’ strategy for, 59–60
222, 234
auctoritas (precariousness of reputation), 224
Assyria, 12, 19
Augustus, 163, 165, 170, 200, 207, 223–24
Athena, 41
autonomia, 106–7
Athenians, 106; Assembly and, 38; battle of
autonomy: Boeotia and, 94–99, 103–12; Epami-
Marathon and, 24–26; Boeotia and, 96;
nondas and, 94; King’s Peace and, 71–72,
Callias peace treaty and, 41–43; class issues
89n63; Messenia and, 98–99; polis and, 151;
and, 40–41; cleruchy and, 34; competition
Roman state power and, 174–75; satrap sys-
and, 35–36; Conon and, 58–59, 69–70, 75,
tem and, 125–26; Second Athenian League
87n47; Corinthians and, 53–54; Darius and,
and, 72–73; slave wars and, 185–202
23–26; defense mentality and, 73–75; Delian
Avidius Cassius, 166
Leauge and, 31–34, 43, 45; democracy and,
21–23, 34, 40–41; economic growth of, 5;
Babylon, 132, 172; Alexander and, 120, 123–24;
education and, 50; Egyptian campaign of,
crushing of Judah by, 12; Cyrus’s invasion
55; elitism and, 40; empire building and,
of, 11–16; expansion of, 12; loss of without
34–55, 97; financial gain of, 37–40; fortifica-
battle, 11; Marduk and, 12, 14; reputation
tions and, 5, 58–78; freedom and, 36, 40,
of, 12; sacking of Nineveh and, 12; satrap
49; Great Panathenaic Festival and, 41; in-
system and, 125
feriority complex of, 26; Ionian ties of, 32;
Bactria, 121–29, 134
isonomia and, 22; King’s Peace and, 70–73,
Balacrus, 125
86n43, 88n56, 89nn59,63; Melian Dialogue
Balkans, 211
and, 36; naval power and, 51–53, 73; Old
banditry: counterinsurgency and, 168–71,
Oligarch and, 38–40, 50–51; peace with
182n20; frontier defense and, 227, 229,
Persia and, 41–42; Pericles and, 4–5, 31 ( see
232–33; pirates and, 33, 190, 198–200, 209;
also Pericles); phalanx and, 24; quality of
slave wars and, 191
life and, 38–40; Second Athenian League
barbarians: frontier defense and, 227–42; Io-
and, 72–73; slavery and, 186, 188; Spartans
nian concept of, 9, 25, 28, 40; temple burn-
and, 35, 48, 63, 67–69; Sphodrias and, 72–73;
ings and, 28, 43, 45–48, 53, 59–62, 228–42
swearing allegiance to, 34–35; Thasians
Bardiya, 18
250 Index
Bar-Kokhba, Simon, 165–67, 169, 172
Cassius, 175, 221
Batavians, 165
Cato the Younger, 213
Batis, 132
Catullus, 218
Bel, 132
Celts, 190, 198
Belgic tribes, 212
centurions, 219–20, 222, 226nn20,22
Berkey, David, vii, 5, 58–92
Cestius Gallus, 173
Berlin, 140
Chaeronea, 100, 106, 119
Berlin Wall, 68
Chalcidians, 35
Bessus, 121, 124, 133
China, 202
bipolar state system, 63, 69, 86n43
Chios, 33, 186, 188, 193, 195, 197
Bisitun, 18
Chnodomarius, 235–36, 238
Bithynia, 166
Christians, 166, 191, 238
Black Sea, 32, 42, 238
Cicero, 93, 171, 176–78, 199, 206, 219
blood drinking, 131
Cilicia, 125, 169, 171, 194
Boeotia, 60, 71, 89n61, 113n3, 147, 188; Athenians
Cimbri, 212
and, 96; as backwater, 95; democracy and,
Cimon, 42, 44, 46, 55
94–99; Epaminondas and, 94–99, 103–12;
citizens: status of Roman, 172–75; urban fight-
fourth-century, 94–96; invasion of 370–69
ing and, 138–57
and, 96–99; oligarchy and, 95–96, 105, 108–
city-states: acropolis and, 144; agora and,
12, 114n5, 116n21; passive/active strategies
144–51; Athenian empire building and,
of, 96; preemption and, 103–12; Spartans
34–55; autonomy and, 36–37; bipolar state
and, 95–96; urban fighting and, 147
system and, 63, 69, 86n43; borderland
Boeotian League, 71
control and, 36–37; circuit wall and, 143–44,
bolt-shooters, 155
151–52; Delian League and, 31–34, 43,
border defense. See frontier defense
45; Epaminondas and
, 94; fortifications
Bosporus, 32
and, 58–78, 151–52 ( see also fortifications);
Boudicca, 165
freedom and, 49; Great Panathenaic Fes-
Boukoloi (bandit group), 169
tival and, 41; grid-planned, 146–47; house
Britain, 123; civil war and, 207; counter-
construction and, 147; interstate system
insurgency and, 165, 167, 171–72; Julius
and, 59, 63, 69, 71–73, 77, 86n43, 87n50,
Caesar and, 206–7, 212–16; naval power
88n58; Ionian, 40; King’s Peace and, 70–73,
and, 77–78
86n43, 88n56, 89nn59,63; polis description
Brutus, 221
and, 143–44; Second Athenian League and,
Bulla Felix, 200
72–73; slavery and, 186; street layout and,
Burebista, 211
146–49, 155; urban fighting and, 138–57
Burgundians, 239–40
Civilis, 165–66
Bush, George W., 102, 112
civil wars, 3, 131, 139; Britain and, 207; counter-
Byzantine Empire, 207
insurgency and, 163, 165–66, 170, 174, 176;
keeping the initiative and, 221; Rome
Cadmea, 144
and, 206–10, 213, 216–17, 221–24; slave wars
Caesar, title of, 207
and, 191, 198, 200; urban warfare and, 142,
Calas, 125
145–46, 150
Calgacus, 167
Claudii Marcelli, 177
Callias, 40–41, 43
Claudius, 166, 176
Callisthenes, 122
Clausewitz, 10
Cambyses, 17–18
Clazomenae islands, 70
Campania, 190
Cleitus, 122, 127
canton kings, 235–36
Cleomenes, 126
Caria, 126
Cleopatra, 221
Carthaginians, 54, 109, 148, 189
cleruchy, 34
Index 251
Coeranus, 126
talents of, 14–16; strategy of, 13–16; Temple
coercive democratization, 5–6
of Jerusalem and, 15; urban fighting and,
Colophon, 34–35
139; as vassal of Media, 13; Yahweh and, 15
Columella, 190
Commentaries on the Gallic War (Julius Caesar),
Dacians, 211, 222
165, 212, 216, 218–19
Damophilus of Enna, 191–92
Commius, 214–16
Danube, 211; frontier defense and, 227–35, 239,
communal servitude, 21, 93, 98, 105, 186–88
244n9; Lower, 229–30, 233–34, 239; Middle,
Companion Cavalry, 119, 127
229–34, 244n9
computer-guided weapons systems, 2
Dardanelles, 32, 42
Conference of Luca, 212
Darius I, 17–18; Alexander and, 120–21, 124;
Conon, 58–59, 69–70, 75–76, 87n47
Athenians and, 23–26; Greece and, 23–26;
Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome Page 39
