Increasing U.S. involvement in Vietnam
When President Kennedy took office, the United States was already involved in Vietnam. President Eisenhower had guaranteed South Vietnam’s security. Eisenhower had sent military and economic aid, as well as U.S. military advisors, to South Vietnam. Kennedy escalated U.S. involvement. (Check out the “Conflict in Vietnam” sidebar in Chapter 20 for a brief history of the Vietnam conflict.)
South Vietnam was fighting for its survival after North Vietnam supported communist rebels’ attempts to overthrow the South Vietnamese government. Kennedy believed that North Vietnam needed to be stopped at all costs, so he sent more U.S. forces to Vietnam. By the time Kennedy was assassinated, he had increased the number of U.S. military advisors, military personal that trained and fought with South Vietnamese troops, from 700 to 15,000.
Attending to Domestic Policy
At home, Kennedy attempted to put his New Frontier agenda into place. Kennedy successfully pushed for economic reforms, such as increasing the minimum wage and aiding the poor, underdeveloped parts of the United States. A coalition of Republicans and conservative southern Democrats stifled other aspects of Kennedy’s New Frontier agenda. They successfully defeated his Medicare bill, which was intended to provide subsidized medical care for the elderly. The coalition also destroyed Kennedy’s idea of a new department of urban affairs, because he chose a black to head it. To top it off, Congress delayed his civil rights legislation until after his death.
Pushing for civil rights
President Kennedy set the foundation for the civil rights movement in the United States. He got the ball rolling on civil rights legislation, but he was unable to carry it through to completion. It was left to his successor, Lyndon Johnson, to finish the job.
Civil rights was included in Kennedy’s New Frontier agenda, but the issue lost importance for him as soon as he entered the White House. He didn’t think that the close election of 1960 provided him with a mandate to bring about sweeping changes in civil rights, and he was afraid that southern Democrats would desert his administration if he touched the topic. So he ignored the issue.
In 1962, Kennedy was forced to change his tune on civil rights. Ironically, it was southern Democrats who brought about this change. In 1962, the governor of Mississippi, Ross R. Barnett, attempted to prevent the first African American admitted to the University of Mississippi, James Meredith, from enrolling at the university. Rioting broke out among the white students, and Kennedy sent in federal troops to protect Mr. Meredith and restore order. In a similar situation in 1963, the Governor of Alabama, George Wallace, attempted to prevent two black students from attending the University of Alabama. Kennedy was again forced to react by federalizing the Alabama National Guard and using it against its own governor.
More and more blacks engaged in civil rights marches were being brutalized by southern police. Kennedy presented a bill to Congress, asking for the passage of a civil rights act. This civil rights legislation guaranteed blacks the right to vote, the right to attend public schools, the right to jobs, the right to public accommodations, and the right not to be discriminated against.
A coalition of Republicans and conservative southern Democrats delayed the civil rights legislation. Kennedy didn’t live to see it become law. However, Kennedy’s legislation provided the foundation for the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act (these acts are covered in Chapter 20).
Heading to the moon
One of Kennedy’s greatest accomplishments was to convince Congress to approve money to explore space. Congress gave the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) more than $1 billion. In May 1961, the first U.S. astronaut traveled into space.
In 1962, John Glenn became the first U.S. citizen to orbit the earth. Kennedy didn’t live to see the first American walk on the moon in 1969, but he is considered the godfather of the U.S. space program.
A Promising Life Cut Short
On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy traveled to Dallas to mediate a split in the Texas Democratic Party. The president and his wife were riding in an open convertible on the way to a luncheon, when the president was shot twice — once in the neck and once in the head. He died half an hour later.
Days later, one million people lined the route that the president’s casket took to Arlington Cemetery in Washington D.C.
Dallas night club owner Jack Ruby killed President Kennedy’s assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, when Oswald was being transported from one jail to another. Oswald died at the same hospital that President Kennedy died in days earlier.
Rumors of a conspiracy to assassinate the president prompted the appointment of the Warren Commission, headed by Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren. The Warren Commission found no such conspiracy, but rumors persist to this day.
Chapter 20
Fighting for Might and Right: Lyndon Johnson
In This Chapter
Growing up a career politician
Becoming president
Dealing with Vietnam
L yndon Johnson is one of the most contentious presidents in U.S. history. A political genius, Johnson ran the Senate like his personal fiefdom during his tenure as majority leader. He knew how to bargain and compromise to get what he wanted from his colleagues.
As president, he was responsible for the passing of the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. Both acts enhanced the political power of blacks in the United States and reduced discrimination greatly. Johnson built upon Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal policies by adding Medicare to Social Security, helping millions of elderly citizens.
His accomplishments should put him on top of the list of U.S. presidents. However, there was Vietnam. Johnson escalated U.S. involvement, committing thousands of troops to a cause that turned into one of the greatest disasters in the history of U.S. foreign policy. Considering Vietnam, Johnson was a good but not a great president.
Johnson’s Early Political Career
After a brief career as a schoolteacher, Johnson used his father’s political connections to get appointed secretary to Democratic Congressman Richard Kleberg in 1931. Johnson traveled with Kleberg to Washington, D.C. and did his best to impress the Democratic leadership on Capitol Hill. He went as far as showering in the communal bathroom four times a day just to meet people.
Johnson impressed the Speaker of the House, Texas Democrat Sam Rayburn, and even President Franklin Roosevelt. In 1935, the president appointed Johnson the director of the Texas National Youth Administration. Johnson put thousands of young Texans to work.
Johnson also made many friends and political connections. Then fate took a turn. The Democratic incumbent of Johnson’s home district in Central Texas suddenly died in 1937. Johnson ran for the open seat in the special election held to fill the position. He borrowed money from his wife and, with his many friends backing him, won the seat.
Just a country bumpkin
Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908 near Johnson City, Texas. His grandfather had moved the family from Georgia to Texas in 1846 to raise cattle. Unfortunately, he wasn’t very successful at it. Johnson’s father abandoned ranching to sell real estate. Johnson’s father was deeply involved in Texas politics, serving six terms in the Texas legislature. When Lyndon Johnson was born, his father told a neighbor that a United States senator had been born. He was right.
Johnson went to local schools and held many menial jobs on the side. By the time he graduated from high school, he had worked as a shoeshine boy, a hired hand, and an animal trapper.
Growing up poor, Johnson saw a need for a government that would give a helping hand to the average citizen. He became a staunch supporter of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal policies. Johnson fulfilled his desire to help people by becoming a teacher. In 1927, he borrowed money to attend Southwest Texas Teachers College. He graduated in 1930 and became a public school teacher in Houston, Texas, until politics interfered with his educational career.
In 1934, Lyndon
Johnson met his future wife, Claudia Alta “Lady Bird” Taylor. He asked her to marry him on their first date, and she said “no.” He was very persistent, and she said “yes” two months later. On the day of their wedding, he forgot her wedding ring. So he ran to a Sears store right before the ceremony to pick up a ring for $2.50. The couple had two daughters. Lady Bird Johnson is still the grand old lady of Texas politics.
Serving in the House of Representatives
As soon as Johnson entered the House of Representatives, he became one of the staunchest supporters of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and the New Deal. He worked tirelessly for the president and for his constituents. Roosevelt was so impressed with Johnson that he gave him a one-time invitation to ride on the presidential train.
With FDR’s help, Johnson brought public electricity to Texas and rebuilt some roads and dams in his home state. Johnson’s dedication to his constituents was so great that he demanded that his staff answer every constituent letter within 24 hours of receiving it.
Trying for the Senate
In 1941, one of the Texas senators died in office. Johnson decided to run for the vacant seat. Even President Roosevelt endorsed him, saying that Johnson was a good old friend. Johnson almost pulled off a victory. In the end, he lost the race by just 1,311 votes out of over 600,000 cast.
Johnson was still serving in the House when the United States entered World War II. He became the first congressman to volunteer for the military. He served in Australia and New Guinea, where the Japanese shot down his plane in 1942. Johnson received the Silver Star for bravery and returned home a hero.
The death of Franklin Roosevelt in 1945 affected Johnson deeply. He told friends that he felt as if he had lost his second father. He vowed to continue Roosevelt’s legacy in Congress. To do this, he had to become a senator. So he ran again for the Senate in 1948. The election was even closer than the 1941 election, but the result was in Johnson’s favor this time — he won by 87 votes out of 900,000 cast. His political enemies made fun of the closeness of the election and called him “Landslide Lyndon.”
Serving in the Senate
When Johnson arrived in the Senate in 1949, he was well-known and had great connections. He had served in the House for 12 years and made many friends. His friend and mentor Sam Rayburn was again the Speaker of the House. Johnson was a moderate southern senator, and both liberal northern Democrats and conservative southern Democrats trusted him.
Showing leadership
Johnson, despite being a freshman in the Senate, was appointed to the prestigious Senate Armed Services Committee, where he advocated strong defense and the containment of communism. In 1952, when the Republicans regained control of the Senate in the Eisenhower landslide, Johnson suddenly found himself minority leader in the Senate.
As minority leader, Johnson built a loyal following of Democratic senators. He campaigned for them and gave them good committee assignments — even when they were new to the Senate. In addition, Johnson believed that, as minority leader, he had to work with the Eisenhower administration. Instead of obstructing the Republicans, he bargained and compromised with them. Johnson’s work with the Eisenhower administration earned him the respect of many Republicans.
In 1954, Johnson won reelection, and the Democrats recaptured the Senate. This made Lyndon Johnson the new majority leader. When the missile gap crisis developed and the Soviet Union put the first Sputnik satellite into space in 1957, Johnson, as Senate majority leader, took charge and personally oversaw the development of the U.S. space program.
In 1955, Lyndon Johnson suffered a massive heart attack. He was put on a special diet and had to give up his three-packs-a-day smoking habit. He recuperated quickly and went back to work.
Dealing with civil rights
Civil rights presented a problem for Johnson. He knew that most of his southern colleagues opposed any reforms, while his northern friends pushed for them. The Eisenhower administration bailed him out. Eisenhower pushed for the 1957 civil rights legislation, and Johnson went to work. He watered down the legislation, making it acceptable to southerners, while at the same time assuring passage of at least parts of it. His compromise stood, and Congress passed the first civil rights legislation since the days of Reconstruction.
The 1957 civil rights bill originally provided for non-jury trials for public officials who interfered with blacks’ right to vote. Johnson changed the bill to provide for jury trials because he knew that southern juries were all white and wouldn’t convict public officials. This revision made the bill acceptable to southern Democrats.
Becoming vice president and president
Johnson disliked Republican Vice President Richard Nixon and wanted to make sure that he wouldn’t become president in 1960. Johnson devised a strategy to become the Democratic presidential nominee. He figured that convention delegates wouldn’t be able to agree on a candidate. He stayed out of the primaries so that he could offer himself as a compromise choice.
Johnson miscalculated, and John F. Kennedy won the presidential nomination on the first ballot. To Johnson’s surprise, Kennedy offered him the vice- presidential spot. Johnson accepted and campaigned his heart out. He targeted southerners to make sure that they would vote for Kennedy, who was Catholic. Johnson succeeded — Kennedy won narrowly in the Carolinas, Louisiana, and Texas.
Johnson was one of the strongest vice presidents in U.S. history. He had more experience than the new president, and he had the connections in Congress to make sure that Kennedy’s programs passed. Kennedy took full advantage of Johnson’s political savvy. He listened to Johnson’s advice and even briefed the vice president consistently on his policies. By 1963, Johnson ranked second in importance only to Robert Kennedy in the White House power structure.
As vice president, Johnson continued to focus on the space program. He was responsible for its successful completion, which was accomplished earlier than expected. He also pushed for moving NASA’s (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) headquarters to Houston.
On November 22, 1963, tragedy struck. President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as president only 112 minutes after the president died. Johnson’s first order of business as president was to reassure a grieving public. In his first address to the country, Johnson said, “An assassin’s bullet has thrust upon me the awesome burden of the presidency. I am here to say that I need the help of all Americans, in all of America.”
President Lyndon Baines Johnson (1963–1969)
On November 27, 1963 — five days after becoming president — Lyndon Johnson, pictured in Figure 20-1, addressed both houses of Congress. He pledged to continue Kennedy’s policies and asked Congress to pass Kennedy’s stalled agenda, especially his civil rights agenda, quickly. Johnson knew that the timing was perfect. Under the circumstances, very few representatives would refuse to vote against Kennedy’s polices.
Figure 20-1: Lyndon Johnson, 36th president of the United States.
Courtesy of the Library of Congress
Honoring Kennedy’s agenda
President Johnson outlined his agenda to Congress and the nation in early 1964: “Let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined; as the session which enacted the most far-reaching tax cut of our time; as the session which declared all-out war on human poverty and unemployment in these United States; as the session which finally recognized the health needs of all our citizens . . . as the session which helped to build more homes, and more schools, and more libraries, and more hospitals than any single session of Congress in the history of our Republic.”
The highlights of Kennedy’s civil rights agenda, signed into law by Johnson, include the following:
The Civil Rights Act: This act outlawed discrimination based upon gender, race, and religion. Further, it declared discrimination in public accommodations illegal. Johnson signed the act into law in 1964.
&n
bsp; To support passage of the Civil Rights Act, Johnson stated: “The promise of America is a simple promise: Every person shall share in the blessings of this land. And they shall share on the basis of their merits as a person. They shall not be judged by their color, or by their beliefs, or by their religion, or by where they were born, or the neighborhood in which they live.”
The Voting Rights Act: This act, passed by Congress in 1965, guaranteed all U.S. citizens, including blacks, the right to vote in all states. The act outlawed all of the barriers to voting that were established by the southern states. In addition, it allowed for federal observers to be sent anywhere in the United States to supervise elections and prevent voting irregularities from taking place.
Many barriers to voting had been established in the South. These barriers included literacy tests, which discriminated against poor, uneducated blacks and whites equally. Poll taxes, which required individuals to pay to vote, were declared illegal, and the infamous grandfather clause, which stated that you could vote only if your grandfather had voted, and therefore automatically excluded most blacks, was abolished.
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