Robin Hood is England’s greatest folk hero. Everyone knows the story of the outlaw who robbed from the rich and gave to the poor. Nick Rennison’s highly entertaining book begins with the search for the historical Robin. Was there ever a real Robin Hood? Rennison looks at the candidates who have been proposed over the years, from petty thieves to Knights Templar, before moving on to examine the many ways in which Robin Hood has been portrayed in literature and on the screen.
He began as the hero of dozens and dozens of late medieval ballads. He appeared in plays by contemporaries of Shakespeare. In the Romantic era Robin was reinvented by Walter Scott as a Saxon champion in the struggle against the Normans. During the nineteenth century, he emerged as a hero in children’s literature. More recently he has been portrayed as everything from proto-socialist man of the people to anarchist thug. In the cinema he put in an appearance as early as 1908 and Douglas Fairbanks and then Errol Flynn turned him into the typical hero of Hollywood swashbucklers. In the last twenty years, Kevin Costner and Russell Crowe have provided their own very different interpretations of the character. On the small screen, Robin has been the hero of half-a-dozen TV shows from the 1950s series starring Richard Greene, which used many writers blacklisted by Hollywood, via the well-remembered Robin of Sherwood in the 1980s to the recent BBC series.
As the twenty-first century marches through its second decade, Robin Hood is still very much with us. He is the subject of graphic novels and computer games. New films are in the offing. Robin is an archetypal hero who, it seems, can never die. This engaging book charts his life so far.
Nick Rennison has worked as a bookseller, editor and writer for many years. He has edited Waterstone’s Guide to Ideas, The Bloomsbury Good Reading Guide and The Bloomsbury Good Reading Guide to Crime Fiction, is the author of The London Blue Plaque Guide, has edited an anthology entitled Poets on Poets, and is the author of Sherlock Holmes: The Unauthorised Biography and The Rivals of Sherlock Holmes. He is also the author of the Pocket Essentials on Freud and Psychoanalysis and Roget.
Other Pocket Essentials by this author:
Freud & Psychoanalysis
Roget – the Man Who Became a Book
Contents
Introduction
Chapter One: Robin in the Ballads
Chapter Two: Robin in the May Games
Chapter Three: Historical Robin
Chapter Four: Robin in Literature
Chapter Five: Robin on the Screen
Chapter Six: Illustrated Robin
Chapter Seven: Musical Robin
Chapter Eight: Computer Robin and the Future of a Legend
Chapter Nine: Merry Men (and Others)
Further Reading
Introduction
In Julian Barnes’s satirical novel England, England, a media magnate who is intent on turning the Isle of Wight into one gigantic theme park celebrating ‘Englishness’ commissions his marketing men to come up with a list of the fifty subjects most associated with the word ‘England’. Robin Hood and His Merrie Men comes seventh on the list, behind the Royal Family, Big Ben and Manchester United Football Club but well ahead of Shakespeare, Stonehenge and the Beefeaters at the Tower of London. Robin and Co duly become one of the theme park’s most popular attractions. Barnes is, of course, exaggerating for comic effect but he is right in highlighting the continuing significance of the famous outlaw. More than six hundred years after he first appeared in a handful of medieval poems, he is a worldwide cultural figure who represents particular ideas about England and Englishness. Start looking for him and Robin Hood is everywhere. There are Robin Hood novels and Robin Hood films, Robin Hood comics and Robin Hood computer games. He can be found in TV series, operas, musicals, pantomimes, graphic novels, cartoons and comedy shows. As the scholar Lois Potter has written, ‘it is difficult to find a medium in which Robin Hood has not been represented’. He is at the heart of a tourist industry in Nottinghamshire, the county which claims him as its own, and he has an airport named after him. His fame is such that mere mention of his name in a newspaper headline ensures that readers know what to expect from the story. Call a proposed fiscal measure a ‘Robin Hood’ tax, for example, and everyone knows what its redistributive aim will be.
The story of the ‘good outlaw’, the person who breaks the laws of the land but nonetheless epitomises a sense of fairness that is not necessarily encoded in those laws, is a familiar figure in many cultures. There are Robin Hood-like characters from around the world (Juraj Janosik in Slovakia, Chucho el Roto in Mexico, Kobus van der Schlossen in Holland) but there is only one Robin Hood. As hero, trickster and mythological embodiment of a justice beyond that of the law, he stands alone.
Because of his great fame, we assume we know who Robin Hood was. Ask people in the street about him and a composite picture of the outlaw will soon start to emerge. He lived in the time of Richard the Lionheart and Prince John. He was a man who returned from the Crusades and was driven into exile in the forest by the treachery of others. He was a Saxon who fought against the tyranny of the Normans. He was a nobleman reduced to poverty and outlawry by the loss of his lands, stolen from him by villains like the Sheriff of Nottingham. Accompanied by faithful comrades like Little John, Will Scarlet and Friar Tuck, he robbed the rich and gave to the poor. The love of his life was Maid Marian. Begin looking into the story of Robin Hood and you soon find that very little of this is true of the original outlaw of the medieval poems. The ‘facts’ about Robin Hood that everybody knows, those of his attributes with which people are most familiar, turn out to have developed over the centuries. The story of Robin Hood is a myth which has always been subject to change and adaptation. It still is. The fundamental reason why Robin continues to be part of our culture and other medieval outlaws like Fulk FitzWarin don’t is that his legend has always been open to reinterpretation and theirs have not.
This book is an attempt to provide an introduction to Robin Hood in all his incarnations. It begins with two chapters which look at him as he was portrayed in the medieval ballads with which his story began and in the folk-plays of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries which made him a familiar figure across Tudor England. A third chapter examines the attempts over the years to find a ‘real’ Robin Hood, an individual from the historical record whose exploits provided the basis for the legend. ‘Robin in Literature’ and ‘Robin on the Screen’ provide the heart of the book. Robin’s story has become what it is because it has been told and re-told over and over again down the centuries. Different writers and filmmakers have approached it in different ways, adding to it and embellishing it and changing its narrative emphasis. Some of these changes have survived to form part of the familiar tale we all recognise; others have not. These two chapters trace the history of Robin in drama, poetry and fiction and of Robin in the cinema and on TV. Chapters on Robin as he has appeared in illustration and comic books, and in operas and musicals, follow. Two final chapters look at the prospects for Robin’s future and at the stories of the other well-known characters in the legend. This is not an academic work and it does not have footnotes but it does end with a list of suggestions for further reading which will provide more information than can be crammed into the pages of a ‘Pocket Essential’.
With the exception only of the tales of King Arthur, the story of Robin Hood is the most famous of all England’s legends. In many ways, it is the most appealing. It speaks to that part of us which wants to believe that justice and fairness will prevail in the face of tyranny. It speaks to that part of us which wants to believe that somewhere there is a place of freedom, a Sherwood Forest, where oppression cannot touch us and we can live better and more honest lives. It is a legend that has survived so long because it has always found ways to change and evolve over the years. R
obin Hood has long proved himself an archetypal hero and it seems unlikely that he will die any time soon. This book charts his life so far.
Robin in the Ballads
The very first mention of rhymes of Robin Hood occurs in William Langland’s long poem The Vision of Piers Plowman which is usually dated to 1377. It is also the very first record of the outlaw hero in literature. In the poem, the character Sloth, who is presented as a drunken and incompetent priest, remarks:
‘I kan noght parfitly my Paternoster as the preest it syngeth But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood and Randolf Erl of Chestre.’
In other words, the negligent Sloth doesn’t know the Lord’s Prayer, as he should do, but he is familiar with rhymes about Robin Hood and those about a well-known crusading aristocrat from the early thirteenth century. (Clearly stories of Robin were very popular, although the criticism of them continued. Alexander Barclay, in his translation of the German author Sebastian Brant’s The Ship of Fools, writing more than a century after Langland, sounds a very similar note when he describes those ‘so blinded with their foly/That no scriptur think they so true nor gode/As is a foolish jest of Robin Hode’.) What exactly these rhymes were, we cannot be certain. The very first piece of Robin Hood verse to survive is a fragment in a manuscript dating from the early fifteenth century that is now in Lincoln Cathedral. This reads:
‘Robin Hood in scherewod stod
Hodud and hathud, hosut and schod
Ffour and thurti arrows he bar in his hondus’
‘Robin Hood in Sherwood stood
Hooded and hatted, hosed and shod
Four and thirty arrows he bore in his hands’
Idly scribbled by some anonymous scribe, this may well be the formulaic opening to a Robin Hood poem but nothing more of it exists.
The first ballads that survive in full date from later in the same century. Of these, the longest by far is A Gest of Robyn Hode which is first recorded in a printed form in the early 1500s but was certainly written some decades before that. Most scholars today would place its composition in the 1450s or 1460s, although it probably incorporates themes and motifs from earlier, lost works. Consisting of just over 1,800 lines, divided into eight sections known as ‘fittes’, the poem recounts a series of Robin’s adventures which begin when his men bring a melancholy knight to dine with him in the woods. The knight owes money to St. Mary’s Abbey in York which he cannot pay and, as a consequence, he is in danger of forfeiting his land and estates to the abbey. Robin takes pity on him and agrees to lend him the money he needs. The knight is able to pay off his debt and thwart the land-grabbing attempts of the greedy clerics. Now all he has to do is save up to pay back Robin. Meanwhile Little John, under the alias of ‘Reynolde Grenelef’, has joined the service of the ‘proude sherif of Notingham’ and one day he gets into a fight with the sheriff’s cook. After swapping mighty blows, the two men become friends and both decamp from the castle with large amounts of the sheriff’s goods and cash. John returns only to tempt the sheriff into the forest where he is ambushed and forced to agree to terms with the outlaws.
Robin is now beginning to wonder about the knight who owes him money. The scheduled day for payment has arrived. Robin sends out his men to look for his debtor but they find only two monks from St. Mary’s Abbey. When they lie about the amount of money they are carrying, the outlaws take possession of it and, when the knight does turn up, Robin decides that he has had enough return on his outlay from the monks. He frees the knight of his debt. The enraged sheriff, intent on revenge, later learns of the knight’s involvement with the outlaws and takes him prisoner. Robin Hood and his men, outraged by what they see as a breach of the agreement made earlier, go to Nottingham, kill the sheriff and free the knight, now named as Sir Richard at the Lee. The king, who has been told of Robin’s exploits, decides to enter the forest disguised as an abbot in an attempt to meet him. As he expects, Robin takes him prisoner and suggests that he should both dine with the outlaws and join with them in their forest sports. When the ‘abbot’ tells the truth about the amount of money he is carrying with him, Robin takes only half of it. When he bests Robin in one of the games, the outlaw leader recognises the king and agrees to enter his service. He spends a year with the king but the call of the greenwood is too strong and he returns to the forest.
In the last twenty lines of the poem, the author fast-forwards through the years and briefly describes his hero’s death, treacherously slain by his kinswoman the Prioress of Kirklee. (A much fuller version of the story of how Robin died is preserved in a ballad entitled ‘Robin Hood’s Death’ which can be found in the seventeenth-century manuscript known as the Percy Folio. The manuscript clearly records a tale that is much older and may indeed be one of the oldest of all the Robin Hood stories. The famous episode of Robin shooting an arrow from the window of Kirklees Priory and asking to be buried where it falls is first found in an eighteenth-century broadside version of the ballad. It is probably a later embellishment of the original story, although it may well date back much further than the period in which it is first recorded.)
What then does the Gest, the most substantial of all the early Robin Hood texts, tell us about the outlaw hero? He is a yeoman not a nobleman, a fact revealed in the poem’s very first stanza. Although some of the action in the Gest takes place in Nottingham, Robin comes from Yorkshire not Nottinghamshire. There is no Sherwood in this text. ‘Robyn stode in Bernesdale’, the poet unequivocally states in the third stanza. The poem opens in Barnsdale in south Yorkshire and this is made abundantly clear by references to other very specific place-names later in the poem. Indeed, the references are so specific and so localised as to suggest that the poet must have had personal knowledge of the area. His chief companions in outlawry are Little John, Much the Miller’s Son and ‘gode Scarlock’ but he has up to ‘seven score’ of other followers. Robin is a religious man with a particular devotion to the Virgin Mary but he has little or no time for bishops and other members of the higher clergy. The monarch at the time of the action in the Gest is not Richard or John but ‘Edward, our comly kynge’.
Further information can be gleaned from the handful of shorter ballads which date from much the same period as the Gest. ‘Robin Hood and the Potter’, which survives in a manuscript from about 1500, shows Robin as trickster, disguising himself as a potter to travel into Nottingham and sell his wares. One of his customers is the Sheriff’s wife who is so delighted by the bargain she gets on the pots she buys that she invites Robin to dine with her husband. The supposed potter wins an archery contest against the Sheriff’s men and, telling his host that he knows the outlaw Robin Hood, he persuades him to travel from the safety of the town into the wilds of the greenwood. There he and his men dispossess the Sheriff of his goods and send him back to Nottingham with his tail between his legs where he faces the scorn and mockery of his wife. ‘Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne’ is first found in a seventeenth-century collection but elements in it closely echo a play from 1475 and it must date back to the late fifteenth century. It introduces the character who has, over the centuries, been Robin’s most regular opponent other than the Sheriff of Nottingham. This lively and unashamedly violent ballad has Robin and Little John encountering Sir Guy of Gisborne in the ‘merry greenwood’. The two outlaws have an argument. John departs to Barnsdale and leaves Robin with Guy who has been hired to kill the outlaw by the Sheriff but does not immediately recognise his prey. He and Robin compete at archery and, when the outlaw wins and identifies himself, they fight to the death. Robin kills his opponent and, cutting off Guy’s head, he sticks it ‘on his bowes end’. He then takes his ‘Irish kniffe’ and mutilates the face. Meanwhile Little John has been captured by the Sheriff and faces execution until Robin, now disguised as Guy, approaches and frees his comrade. The Sheriff tries to flee but ‘Little John, with an arrow broade/Did cleave his heart in twinn’.
‘Robin Hood and the Monk’, which can be found in a manuscript at Cambridge University that dates from a
bout 1450, may well be the oldest of all surviving tales of the outlaw. In it, Robin, anxious to attend mass, travels to Nottingham where a ‘gret-hedid munke’ (a large-headed monk) recognises him and tells the Sheriff of his presence in the town. The outlaw is captured. Little John and Much the Miller’s Son, when they learn what has happened, determine to rescue their master. They encounter the monk and his page. John kills the monk (he ‘smote of the munkis hed’) and Much does the same to the page for fear the boy would be a witness against them. They take letters from the monk and deliver them to the king who accepts their story that the monk died a natural death. The king now charges John and Much with the task of travelling to Nottingham to bring Robin to him. With the king’s blessing they have little trouble in getting into the prison where their leader is being held. They kill the jailer and free Robin.
Even the briefest summaries of ‘Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne’ and ‘Robin Hood and the Monk’ reveal an important fact about these early ballads. One of the most striking elements in them is their casual violence. Although Robin and his followers are capable of courtesy and generosity, and they have, in their own way, a rather strict code of justice and morality, they are also men with no qualms about killing their enemies and mutilating their bodies after doing so. As the historian Maurice Keen has written, ‘In the ballads, we are up against a full-blooded medieval brigand.’ Nor were the men who created the ballads particularly troubled by this. The violence is described in very much the same casual, off-handed way in which it is committed.
Other old ballads about Robin exist – close to thirty of them – but none has the same age and provenance as the Gest and the handful of other, shorter works just described. Many of them undoubtedly incorporate early material but it is impossible to trace it back to its original sources. The ballads which survive from the seventeenth century do so in a variety of forms. Some are found in manuscripts. The so-called Percy Folio, a huge compilation of old ballads and poetry of all kinds, is written in a seventeenth-century hand but has material in it that dates back centuries before that. It contains first surviving texts of some of the best-known Robin ballads including ‘Robin Hood and the Curtal Friar’, an introduction to the character later known as Friar Tuck, and ‘Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly’. Some appeared as broadsides, printed on a single sheet of paper and sold in the city streets and at markets and fairs. Some were produced as chapbooks, pocket-sized booklets designed to be sold by the travelling pedlars known as chapmen. Over the years they were accumulated by collectors intrigued by these examples of popular culture (the diarist Samuel Pepys was one avid enthusiast) or they were gathered together in what were known as ‘garlands’, short anthologies of ballads from different sources. The first major, scholarly attempt to bring all the known ballads together in one book was made by a man named Joseph Ritson in 1795.
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