Ideas

by Peter Watson

  7. The notion of ‘protection’, however, meant that the East India companies did need to involve themselves in politics. See Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 2003, page 32. See also: Ferguson, Op. cit., page 163.

  8. Pagden, Op. cit., pages 100–101.

  9. Jeremy Bernstein, Dawning of the Raj: The Life and Times of Warren Hastings, London: Aurum, 2001, pages 208ff. See also: Ferguson, Op. cit., page 38.

  10. Pagden, Op. cit., page 104. Ferguson, Op. cit., pages xxiii and 260. David Armitage, in The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2002) says that Protestant arguments about property were important in the idea of Empire.

  11. Seymour Drescher, in From Freedom to Slavery: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery, London: Macmillan, 1999, page 344, notes that Jews took little part in slavery.

  12. Pagden, Op. cit., page 111.

  13. Ibid., page 112.

  14. Ibid., page 113. And see Moynahan, Op. cit., pages 537ff, for other papal bulls on slavery.

  15. Pagden, Op. cit., page 114.

  16. Lawrence James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, London: Little Brown/Abacus, 1994/1998, page 185. Drescher, Op. cit., pages 69–71, for the anti-slavery campaign before and around Wilberforce.

  17. Pagden, Op. cit., page 117.

  18. Schulze, Op. cit., page 197.

  19. Ibid., page 198.

  20. Ibid.

  21. Ibid., page 199.

  22. Ibid., page 200.

  23. Ibid., page 204.

  24. Ibid., page 205.

  25. Tony Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1981, page 41, which explores the way the trades unions began to interfere in imperial ideology.

  26. Friedrich Meinecke, Cosmopolitanism and the National State, translated by Robert B. Kimber, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1970, pages 25–26.

  27. Ibid., page 136.

  28. Michael Morton, Herder and the Poetics of Thought, Pittsburgh: Pennsylvania University Press, 1989, page 99.

  29. Schulze, Op. cit., page 232.

  30. Ibid., page 233.

  31. Wolfgang J. Mommsen (editor), Imperialismus, Hamburg, 1977, page 371.

  32. William J. Stead (editor), The Last Will and Testament of C. J. Rhodes, London: Review of Reviews Office, 1902, pages 57 and 97f. James, Op. cit., page 169.

  33. Osterhammel, Op. cit., page 34.

  34. Raoul Girardot, Le nationalisme français, 1871–1914, Paris, 1966, 179.

  35. Schulze, Op. cit., page 237.

  36. Fritz Stern, Einstein’s German World, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 1999, page 3.

  37. William R. Everdell, The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth-Century Thought, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997, page 166.

  38. William Johnston, The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History 1848–1938, Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 1972/1983, page 183.

  39. Gordon A. Craig, Germany: 1866–1945, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1978/1981, pages 39ff. Eva Kolinsky and Wilfried van der Will (editors), The Cambridge Companion to Modern German Culture, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1998, page 5.

  40. Ibid., pages 43ff. Kolinsky and van der Will, Op. cit., page 21.

  41. See, for instance: Giles Macdonogh, The Last Kaiser, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/Phoenix, 2001, page 3. Kolinsky and van der Will, Op. cit., pages 22–23.

  42. Craig, Op. cit., page 56. Kolinsky and van der Will, Op. cit., pages 4 and 50.

  43. Ibid., 218.

  44. Ibid., pages 218–219.

  45. Schonberg, Lives of the Composers, Op. cit., pages 239ff.

  46. Craig, Op. cit., page 218.

  47. J. W. Burrow, The Crisis of Reason: European Thought, 1848–1914, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000, page 158.

  48. They were destroyed in 1945 when the Nazis burned Immendorf castle, where they were stored during the Second World War.

  49. Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson/New York: Knopf, 1980, pages 227–232.

  50. Burrow, Op. cit., pages 137–138.

  51. See Craig, Op. cit., page 188.

  52. Burrow, Op. cit., page 188.

  53. Pagden, Op. cit., page 147.

  54. Ibid., page 148.

  55. Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Op. cit., page 171.

  56. See Tony Smith, Op. cit., pages 63–65, for why Russia, at that point, could not have been a nation of the future.

  57. Ivan Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea, Washington, DC, and Baltimore: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, page 292.

  58. Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1997, page 193.

  59. Ibid., page 196.

  60. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 5.

  61. Ibid., pages 51–70.

  62. Ibid., pages 143ff.

  63. Hannaford, Op. cit., pages 291–292.

  64. Hawkins, Op. cit., page 132.

  65. Hannaford, Op. cit., pages 289–290.

  66. Hawkins, Op. cit., page 185.

  67. Ibid.

  68. Hannaford, Op. cit., page 338.

  69. Ibid.

  70. Johnston, Op. cit., page 364.

  71. Hawkins, Op. cit., pages 126–127.

  72. Ibid., page 178.

  73. Ibid., page 62.

  74. Ibid., page 201.

  75. Hannaford, Op. cit., page 330.

  76. A. L. Macfie, Orientalism, London: Longman, 2002, page 179.

  77. Ibid., page 180.

  78. Ibid.

  79. Ibid.

  80. Tony Smith says that pre-British India was some 500 years behind Europe, economically speaking, when the British arrived. Macfie, Op. cit., page 75.

  81. Ibid., page 181.

  82. Ibid.

  83. Ibid., page 182.

  84. Quoted in Ferguson, Op. cit., page 39. Bernstein, Op. cit., page 89, says that Nathaniel Halhed (aged twenty-three in 1771) was the first to point out the relation between Bengali and Sanskrit.

  85. Hastings also funded several expeditions: Bernstein, Op. cit., pages 145ff.

  86. Macfie, Op. cit., page 53.

  87. See Tony Smith, Op. cit., page 74, for a discussion of what the British destroyed in India.

  88. Macfie, Op. cit., page 56.

  89. Ferguson, Op. cit., pages 365–371.

  90. Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, London and New York: Chatto & Windus/Vintage, 1993/1994, pages xiff.

  91. Ibid., page xxiv.

  92. Ibid., pages 8–12.

  93. Ibid., page 85.

  94. For some of the weaknesses in Said’s work, see: Valerie Kennedy, Edward Said: A Critical Introduction, Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2000, pages 25 and 37. Said considers only novels: see Roger Benjamin, Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism and North Africa, 1880–1930, Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2003, especially pages 129ff, for travelling scholarships for artists. And see: Philippe Jullian, The Orientalists: European Painters of Eastern Scenes, Oxford: Phaidon, 1977, who, in his chapter on the influence of artists, says they helped launch the ‘desolate East’ (page 39).

  95. Said, Op. cit., page 75.

  96. Ibid., page 102.

  97. Ibid., page 104.

  98. Ibid., page 108.

  99. Edmund Wilson, ‘The Kipling that nobody read’, in The Wound and the Bow, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947, pages 100–103.

  100. A different view was advanced by Noel Annan in his essay ‘Kipling’s place in the history of ideas’, where he presents the notion that Kipling’s vision of society was similar to the new sociologists–Durkheim, Weber and Pareto–w
ho ‘saw society as a nexus of groups; and the pattern of behaviour which these groups unwittingly established, rather than men’s wills or anything so vague as a class, cultural or national tradition, primarily determined men’s actions. They asked how these groups promoted order or instability in society, whereas their predecessors had asked whether certain groups helped society to progress.’ Said, Op. cit., page 186 and Noel Annan, ‘Kipling’s place in the history of ideas’, Victorian Studies, volume 3, number 4, June 1960, page 323.

  101. Said, Op. cit., page 187.

  102. Ibid., page 196.

  103. Redmond O’Hanlon, Joseph Conrad and Charles Darwin, Edinburgh: Salamander Press, 1984, page 17.

  104. D. C. R. A. Goonetilleke, Joseph Conrad: Beyond Culture and Background, London: Macmillan, 1990, pages 15ff.

  105. Kingsley Widner, ‘Joseph Conrad’, in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Detroit: Bruccoli Clark, volume 34, 1988, pages 43–82.

  106. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood/Penguin, 1902/1995.

  107. Goonetilleke, Op. cit., pages 88–91.

  108. Conrad, Op. cit., page 20.

  109. Goonetilleke, Op. cit., page 168.

  110. Richard Curle, Joseph Conrad: A Study, London: Kegan Paul, French, Trübner, 1914.

  111. In Occidentalism (London: Atlantic Books, 2004) Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit identify the opposite sentiment to Orientalism, ‘the hostile stereotypes of the western world that fuel the hatred at the heart of such movements as al Qaeda’. They root this variously in pan-Germanic movements of the nineteenth century, which affected national feeling in the Arab world and in Japan in the twentieth century, in Persian Manicheanism, and in the differences between the Catholic and Greek orthodox churches, with the latter, in Russia, fuelling an anti-rationalistic mentality.

  112. Melvyn Bragg, The Adventure of English, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2003, page 1.

  113. Ibid., page 3. But see also Geoffrey Hughes, A History of English Words, Oxford: Blackwell, 2000, page 99.

  114. Bragg, Op. cit., page 28.

  115. Hughes, Op. cit., pages xvii–xviii, for a chronology of English; and see also: Barbara A. Fennell, A History of English, Oxford: Blackwell, 2001, pages 55–93.

  116. Bragg, Op. cit., page 23.

  117. Osterhammel, Op. cit., pages 103–104, for a discussion of how colonisers affect (and often destroy) the language of the colonised.

  118. Bragg, Op. cit., page 52.

  119. Ibid., page 58.

  120. Ibid., page 52.

  121. Ibid., page 67.

  122. M. T. Clanchy, England and Its Rulers (second edition), Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.

  123. Not all conquerors impose their languages: See Osterhammel, Op. cit., page 95, for the different experiences of the Spanish and Dutch (in Indonesia) in this regard.

  124. Bragg, Op. cit., page 85.

  125. Ibid., page 101.

  126. Hughes, Op. cit., pages 153–158.

  127. Bragg, Op. cit., page 148.

  128. Boorstin, The Americans: Op. cit., pages 275ff, for American ‘ways of talking’.

  129. John Algeo (editor), The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, volume VI, 2001, pages 92–93 and 163–168 passim. See also Bragg, Op. cit., page 169.

  130. Bragg, Op. cit., page 178.

  131. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 287, says another derivation may have come from Old Kinderhook, the nickname for Martin van Buren, in his presidential campaign. He was supported by Democratic OK Clubs in New York.

  132. Bragg, Op. cit., page 241.

  133. For English around the world, see: Robert Burchfield, The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, volume V, 1994, especially chapter 10.

  CHAPTER 34: THE AMERICAN MIND AND THE MODERN UNIVERSITY

  1. Boris Ford (editor), The New Pelican Guide to English Literature, volume 9, American Literature, London: Penguin Books, 1967/1995, page 61.

  2. Commager, The Empire of Reason, Op. cit., page 16f.

  3. Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America, London: HarperCollins/Flamingo, 2001.

  4. Menand, Op. cit., pages x–xii. See too Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 168, who also identifies what he calls ‘a renaissance’ in American thought.

  5. Morison et al., Growth of the American Republic, Op. cit., page 209.

  6. Menand, Op. cit., page 6. Harvey Wish, Society and Thought in Modern America, London: Longmans Green, 1952, adds Veblen, Sumner, Whitman, Dreiser and Pulitzer, Louis Sullivan and Winslow Homer to this list.

  7. Brogan, The Penguin History of the United States, Op. cit., page 300. See also Boorstin, The Americans: The National Experience, Op. cit., page 251.

  8. Menand, Op. cit., page 19.

  9. Ibid., page 26. See also Luther S. Luedtke, Making America: The Society and Culture of the United States, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992, page 225, for the pivotal role of Emerson for writers.

  10. Menand, Op. cit., page 46.

  11. Mark DeWolfe Howe, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes: The Shaping Years, volume 1, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1957–1963, two volumes, page 100.

  12. Menand, Op. cit., page 61.

  13. Brogan, Op. cit., pages 325ff, for a good brief introduction to the weaponry and tactics of the Civil War.

  14. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209. See also Albert W. Alschuler, Law Without Values: The Life, Work and Legacy of Justice Holmes, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, pages 41ff, ‘The battlefield conversion of Oliver Wendell Holmes’.

  15. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 32, for the impact of Darwin on Holmes.

  16. Holmes famously said that anyone who was anyone should have produced a noteworthy achievement by the time he or she was forty. He himself just made it: The Common Law appeared when he was 39.

  17. Menand, Op. cit., page 338.

  18. Howe, Op. cit., volume 2, page 137.

  19. Menand, Op. cit., page 339.

  20. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209.

  21. Menand, Op. cit., page 339.

  22. Ibid., page 340.

  23. Ibid., page 341.

  24. Howe, Op. cit., volume 2, page 140.

  25. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209.

  26. Menand, Op. cit., page 342.

  27. Alschuler, Op. cit., page 126.

  28. Menand, Op. cit., page 344.

  29. He had, he said, a pessimistic view of humanity. Alschuler, Op. cit., pages 65 and 207.

  30. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 201–210.

  31. Menand, Op. cit., page 346.

  32. Ibid.

  33. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 209.

  34. Menand, Op. cit., page 79.

  35. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 127. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 199.

  36. See his self-portrait sketch on page 140 of: Gary Wilson Allen, William James: A Biography, London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1967.

  37. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 297.

  38. This, says Menand, ‘marked the beginning of the professionalisation of American science’. Op. cit., page 100.

  39. Linda Simon, Genuine Reality: A Life of William James, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998, page 90.

  40. Menand, Op. cit., page 127.

  41. Ibid., page 146.

  42. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 199.

  43. Allen, Op. cit., page 25.

  44. Menand, Op. cit., page 154.

  45. Ibid.

  46. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 198.

  47. Menand, Op. cit., page 180.

  48. Ibid., page 186.

  49. Joseph Brent, C. S. Peirce: A Life, Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1993, page 208.

  50. Hofstadter, Op. cit., pages 124ff, for the links between Herbert Spencer and pragmatism.