Ideas

by Peter Watson

  51. Menand, Op. cit., page 196.

  52. Brent, Op. cit., page 96.

  53. Menand, Op. cit., page 197.

  54. Ibid., page 199.

  55. Ibid., page 200.

  56. Brent, Op. cit., page 274. See Hofstadter, Op. cit., pages 128ff, for the influence of Peirce and Spencer on James. See also Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., page 260.

  57. Menand, Op. cit., page 352.

  58. Ibid.

  59. Simon, Op. cit., pages 348ff for James’ debt to Peirce.

  60. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 199.

  61. Menand, Op. cit., page 355.

  62. Ibid.

  63. Ibid., page 357.

  64. See Allen, Op. cit., page 321, for his reservations.

  65. Menand, Op. cit., pages 357–358.

  66. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being, Op. cit.

  67. See for example: Ellen Key, The Century of the Child, New York: Putnam, 1909.

  68. Boorstin, Op. cit., page 201.

  69. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 223.

  70. This lack of structure ultimately backfired, producing children who were more conformist, precisely because they lacked hard knowledge or the independent judgement that the occasional failure helped to teach them. Liberating children from parental ‘domination’ was, without question, a form of freedom. But, in the twentieth century, it was to bring its own set of problems.

  71. Morison et al., Op. cit., pages 198–199.

  72. Menand, Op. cit., page 360.

  73. Ibid., page 361. See also: Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 136.

  74. Menand, Op. cit., page 361.

  75. Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy, New York: Cornell University Press, 1991, page 349.

  76. Morison et al., Op. cit., pages 199–200.

  77. Fergal McGrath, The Consecration of Learning, Dublin: Gill & Son, 1962, pages 3–4.

  78. Ibid., page 11.

  79. Negley Harte, The University of London: 1836–1986, Dublin: Athlone Press, 1986, pages 67ff.

  80. John Newman, The Idea of a University, London: Basil Montague Pickering, 1873/New Haven, Connecticut Yale University Press, 1996, page 88.

  81. Ibid., page 123.

  82. Ibid., page 133.

  83. George M. Marsden, The Soul of the American University, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994, page 80.

  84. Ibid., page 91. Daniel Boorstin says that a characteristic of American colleges was that they were less places of instruction than of worship–worship of the growing individual, and this is what links the two parts of this chapter: pragmatism and universities. See Boorstin, The Americans: The Democratic Experience, New York: Vintage, 1973, which also has a useful discussion of the shape of US education, including the many new degrees devised, pages 479–481.

  85. Marsden, Op. cit., pages 51–52.

  86. Brooks Mather Kelley, A History of Yale, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1974, pages 162–165. Yet at Yale, as late as 1886, ancient languages occupied a third of the students’ time. See Caroline Winterer, The Culture of Classicism, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pages 101–102.

  87. Ibid., page 88. See Morison et al., Op. cit., pages 224–225, for statistics on the growth of American universities.

  88. Marsden, Op. cit., page 153.

  89. Abraham Flexner, Universities: American, English, German, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1930, page 124.

  90. Samuel Eliot Morison (editor), The Development of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1930, pages 11 and 158.

  91. Thomas P. Hughes, American Genesis, London: Penguin, 1990, page 14.

  92. Ibid., page 241.

  93. Ibid., page 16. Morison et al., Op. cit., page 53.

  94. Hughes, Op. cit., page 105.

  95. Gillian Cookson, The Cable: The Wire That Changed the World, Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus, 2003, page 152.

  CHAPTER 35: ENEMIES OF THE CROSS AND THE QUR’AN–THE END OF THE SOUL

  1. A. N. Wilson, God’s Funeral, London: John Murray, 1999, page 133.

  2. Ibid., page 160.

  3. Ibid., page 4.

  4. Ibid., page 189.

  5. Ibid., page 193.

  6. This is confirmed by a survey of influential books among ‘freethinkers’ published in 1905. See Edward Royle, Radicals, Secularists and Republicans, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980, page 173.

  7. Wilson, Op. cit., page 20.

  8. Ibid., page 22.

  9. Ibid., page 35.

  10. Owen Chadwick, The Secularisation of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press/Canto, 1975/1985, page 21.

  11. Ibid., page 23.

  12. Ibid., page 27.

  13. Alfred Cobban, In Search of Humanity: The Role of the Enlightenment in Modern History, London: Cape, 1966, page 236. See also Hawthorn, Enlightenment and Despair, Op. cit., pages 82–84.

  14. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 28.

  15. Ibid., pages 29–30; and Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 87.

  16. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 37.

  17. Ibid.

  18. Ibid., page 38.

  19. But polarisation cut both ways. ‘The Pope of 1889 was far more influential than the Pope of 1839 because the later Pope was surrounded by the press [as] the earlier Pope was not.’ Ibid., page 41.

  20. David Landes says the poor ‘entered the market as little as possible’. Unbound Prometheus, Op. cit., page 127.

  21. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 46.

  22. Ibid., page 47.

  23. Again, Marx ranked highly with Gibbon on the list of influential books referred to earlier (see note 6 above). Royle, Op. cit., page 174.

  24. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 57. Hawthorn, Op. cit., page 85, discusses the differences between Protestantism and Catholicism and what this meant for Marxism.

  25. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 59.

  26. Ibid., page 89.

  27. Hofstadter, Op. cit., page 24, observes that Protestants were more likely to become atheists.

  28. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 92.

  29. Ibid., page 97.

  30. Ibid., page 144.

  31. Cobban, Op. cit., page 110. On Carlyle: Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., pages 246–247.

  32. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 145.

  33. Ibid., page 151.

  34. Royle, Op. cit., page 220.

  35. Ibid., page 17.

  36. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 155. Boorstin, The Americans, Op. cit., page 195.

  37. For the general pessimism of the nineteenth century about the eighteenth century, see Cobban, Op. cit., page 215.

  38. Chadwick, Op. cit., pages 158–159.

  39. Ibid., page 159.

  40. See Royle, Op. cit., for the organisation of secularisation in Britain and its revival in 1876. For France, see Jennifer Michael Hecht, The End of the Soul: Scientific Modernity, Atheism and Anthropology in France, New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.

  41. Ibid., page 177.

  42. When, near the end of the century, Josef Bautz, a Catholic professor of theology in Münster, argued that volcanoes are a proof of the existence of purgatory, he was roundly mocked and lampooned as the ‘professor of hell’. Chadwick. Op. cit., page 179. Most parents no longer believed in hell, says Chadwick, but they told their children they did, as a convenient form of control.

  43. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 212.

  44. Ibid., page 215.

  45. Ibid., page 220. Like Comte, Renan thought positivism could be the basis for a new faith. Hawthorn. Op. cit., pages 114–115.

  46. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 224.

  47. Lester R. Kurtz, The Politics of Heresy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986, page 18.

  48. Hecht, Op. cit., page 182. See also: Kurtz, Op. cit., page 18.

  49. Chadwick, Op. cit., page 123.

  50. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 25.

  51. Ibid., page 27.
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br />   52. Moynahan, The Faith, Op. cit., page 655.

  53. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 30.

  54. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 655.

  55. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 30.

  56. Ibid., pages 30–31.

  57. ‘Liberals and intransigents in France, 1848–1878’, Chapter III of Alec R. Vidler, The Modernist Movement and the Roman Church, New York: Garden Press, 1976, pages 25ff.

  58. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 33.

  59. Ibid.

  60. Vidler, Op. cit., pages 42 and 96.

  61. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 34.

  62. Ibid., page 35.

  63. Ibid.

  64. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 659, for a vivid account of that day (including extraordinary weather).

  65. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 37.

  66. Ibid., page 38.

  67. Vidler, Op. cit., pages 60–65 and 133f.

  68. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 41.

  69. Ibid., page 42.

  70. ‘The Biblical Question’, Chapter X, in Vidler, Op. cit., pages 81ff. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 661, says Leo ‘warmed’ to democracy and freedom of conscience. But only by comparison with Pius.

  71. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 44.

  72. Ibid., page 45.

  73. Moynahan, Op. cit., page 661, for the Kulturkampf in Germany that left all the sees in Prussia vacant and more than a million Catholics without access to the sacraments.

  74. Kurtz, Op. cit., page 50.

  75. Ibid., page 148.

  76. See Hourani, History of the Arab Peoples, Op. cit., chapter 18, ‘The culture of imperialism and reform’, pages 299ff. And: Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, London: I. B. Tauris, 1993, pages 52–74.

  77. Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire, Op. cit., especially chapters II, III, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX and X.

  78. The Times (London), 29 April 2004. See also: Aziz Al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities (second edition), London: Verso, 1996, especially chapter 4, pages 101–127.

  79. Hourani, Op. cit., page 307, and pages 346–347.

  80. The Times, 29 April 2004. Al-Azmeh, Op. cit., pages 107–117. See also: Francis Robinson, ‘Other-worldly and This-Worldly Islam and the Islamic Revival’, Cantwell Smith memorial Lecture, Royal Asiatic Society, 10 April 2003.

  81. The study of Machiavelli became popular in the Islamic world, as a way to understand tyrants and despots.

  82. The Times, 29 April 2004. Al-Azmeh, Op. cit., pages 41ff. Hourani, Op. cit., pages 254, 302 and 344–345. See also: Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. The reform movement ended, more or less, with the First World War, when so many lost faith with the culture of science and materialism. In the Islamic world, the postwar scenario saw two parallel strands. Modernism continued in many areas but, beginning in Egypt with the Muslim Brotherhood, a more militant strand of Islam began to take root. Throughout the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, when Marxism and socialism became the official ruling doctrines, religion was downgraded and no accommodation was sought with Islam. This climaxed in the Six-Day War with Israel, in 1968, which the Muslim countries lost decisively. This was seen in the Islamic world as a great failure of socialism, and it was now that fundamental and militant Islam began to fill the political vacuum created.

  CHAPTER 36: MODERNISM AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE UNCONSCIOUS

  1. Ronald Clark, Freud: The Man and the Cause, New York: Random House, 1980, pages 20 and 504.

  2. Everdell, The First Moderns, Op. cit., page 129.

  3. Mark D. Altschule, Origins of Concepts in Human Behavior: Social and Cultural Factors, New York and London: John Wiley, 1977, page 199. Peter Gay, Schnitzler’s Century: The Making of Middle Class Culture 1815–1914, New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2002, pages 132 and 137.

  4. Guy Claxton, The Wayward Mind: An Intimate History of the Unconscious, London: Little, Brown, 2005, passim.

  5. Henri F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious, London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1970, pages 56–70.

  6. Ibid., pages 124–125.

  7. Ibid., page 142.

  8. Reuben Fine, A History of Psychoanalysis, New York: Columbia University Press, 1979, pages 9–10.

  9. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 145.

  10. The work of the historian Peter Gay, especially his four-volume The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1984, views the whole of the nineteenth century as in some way culminating in Freud. His book tackles sex, gender, taste, learning, privacy, changing notions of the self, and is much too wide-ranging to be sensibly distilled in a book like this one. Gustave Gely’s book From the Unconscious to the Conscious, London: Collins, 1920, argues the opposite theory: that evolution has resulted in consciousness.

  11. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 205.

  12. Ibid., page 212.

  13. Ibid., page 219.

  14. Ibid., pages 218–223.

  15. An entirely different tradition, too tangential in the author’s view, is David Bakan’s Sigmund Freud and the Jewish Mystical Tradition, Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand, 1958.

  16. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 208.

  17. Ibid., page 209.

  18. Quoted in: Bryan Magee, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, pages 132–133.

  19. Ernest Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement, London: Paladin, 1985, pages 21ff.

  20. Allen Esterson, Seductive Mirage, Chicago and La Salle, Illinois: Open Court, 1993, page 224.

  21. Ernest Jones, Sigmund Freud: Life and Work, London: Hogarth Press, 1953/1980, volume 1, page 410.

  22. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 358.

  23. Elton Mayo, The Psychology of Pierre Janet, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951, pages 24ff, offers a succinct account.

  24. Ellenberger, Op. cit., page 296.

  25. Ibid.

  26. Giovanni Costigan, Sigmund Freud: A Short Biography, London: Robert Hale, 1967, page 100.

  27. Johnston, The Austrian Mind, Op. cit., page 235.

  28. Esterson, Op. cit., pages 2–3. Johnston, Op. cit., page 236.

  29. Johnston, Op. cit., page 236.

  30. Costigan, Op. cit., page 42.

  31. Ibid., pages 68ff.

  32. Ibid., page 70.

  33. Clark, Op. cit., page 181.

  34. Ibid., page 185.

  35. Gregory Zilboorg, ‘Free association’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, volume 33, 1952, pages 492–494.

  36. See also: Hannah Decker, ‘The medical reception of psychoanalysis in Germany, 1894–1907: three brief studies’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, volume 45, 1971, pages 461–481.

  37. Albrecht Hirschmüller, The Life and Work of Josef Breuer, New York and London: New York University Press, 1978/1989, page 131.

  38. See: Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen (translated by Kirby Olson in collaboration with Xavier Callahan and the author), Remembering Anna O. A Century of Mystification, New York and London: Routledge, 1996, pages 29–48.

  39. Morton Schatzman, ‘Freud: who seduced whom?’, New Scientist, 21 March 1992, pages 34–37.

  40. Esterson, Op. cit., page 52.

  41. Anthony Clare, ‘That shrinking feeling’, The Sunday Times, 16 November 1997, page 8–10.

  42. T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life, Princeton, New Jersey, and London: Princeton University Press, 1984, page 25.

  43. Ibid., page 30.

  44. Ibid., pages 23ff.

  45. Perkin, The Rise of Professional Society, Op. cit., page 80, for a table. For the same thesis applied to Germany, see: Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad H. Jarausch (editors), German Professions: 1800–1950, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Malcolm Bradbury and James McFarlane (editors), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature, 1890–1930, London: Penguin Books, 1976/1991, page 47.