About this Book
Heroic Adventures
Read about the deeds of the legendary heroes and mythical gods of the Iliad and the Odyssey. Follow Odysseus as he hides in the Trojan horse and retakes Troy, fights the Cyclops, escapes enslavement by the sorceress Circe, travels to the underworld, and finally regains his wife and kingdom. Read along as Achilles battles on the plains of Troy and meets his death.
In Mythology of the Iliad and the Odyssey, author Karen Bornemann Spies details the heroic adventures in both the Iliad and the Odyssey, and includes informative interpretations, expert commentary, and a question-and-answer section.
“...a worthy purchase...”
—VOYA
“Teachers may find these volumes useful...”
—The Horn Book Guide
About the Author
Karen Bornemann Spies has written articles for many periodicals and is the author of Buffalo Bill Cody: Western Legend, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Heroes in Greek Mythology Rock! for Enslow Publishers, Inc.
About the Illustrator
William Sauts Bock has illustrated many books, and his illustrations was honored by the American Institute of Graphic Arts.
CONTENTS
Cover
About this Book
Title Page
* * *
Preface
The World at the Time of the Iliad and the Odyssey
The Role of History
The Mycenaean Age (1600 B.C.–1200 B.C.)
The Dark Age (1200 B.C.–800 B.C.)
The Archaic Period (800 B.C.–475 B.C.)
The Classical Period (About 500 B.C.–338 B.C.)
The Hellenistic Age (4th century B.C.–1st century B.C.)
Religion and Culture
The “Homeric Question”
Map of Homer's World
Chapter 1: The Judgment of Paris
Introduction
The Judgment of Paris
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 2: Achilles Argues with Agamemnon
Introduction
Achilles Argues with Agamemnon
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 3: Achilles Versus Hector
Introduction
Achilles Versus Hector
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 4: The Trojan Horse
Introduction
The Trojan Horse
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 5: The Lotus-Eaters
Introduction
The Lotus-Eaters
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 6: The Cyclops
Introduction
The Cyclops
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 7: Circe, the Bewitching Queen
Introduction
Circe, the Bewitching Queen
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 8: Deadly Dangers on the Sea
Introduction
Deadly Dangers on the Sea
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
Chapter 9: Home at Last
Introduction
Home at Last
Questions and Answers
Expert Commentary
* * *
Glossary
Chapter Notes
Further Reading
Index
Note To Our Readers
Copyright
More Books from Enslow
PREFACE
People have told stories since the beginning of time. This book describes a certain type of story known as a myth. The word “myth” comes from the Greek word mythos, which means “word,” “speech,” or “story.” Myths are traditional stories handed down by word of mouth. With each retelling, they may change slightly. Eventually, many myths are written down.
The myths in this book are a special type called epics. An epic is a long poem that narrates, or tells, the deeds of a hero or heroes. An epic uses elegant, formal language to tell of the bravery and mighty deeds of these heroes. However, an epic is more than just an entertaining tale of heroes and heroic deeds. An epic also describes the ideals of a culture at an important time in its history. Details of an epic may have a foundation in historical fact.
The epics in this book are based on the Iliad and the Odyssey. The poet Homer is commonly believed to have composed both poems in the late eighth or early seventh century B.C., even though no historical proof of his authorship exists. It is traditionally believed that Homer was born in the eighth century B.C. on Chios, an island in eastern Greece, or in Smyrna, a seaport in what is now western Turkey. The Greeks believed that he was a professional poet, and that he was blind. Both epic poems describe legendary events that the Greeks believed took place centuries before the poems were composed. This period was known as “the age of heroes.” Homer wrote about the heroes and heroines of the Iliad and the Odyssey as a race of stronger and braver people than the Greeks of his day.
The Iliad recounts the story of the Trojan War, which may actually have taken place in about 1250 B.C. Supposedly, the Greeks united under King Agamemnon of Mycenae in order to rescue Helen, the wife of his brother, King Menelaus of Sparta. The Trojan prince Paris had kidnapped Helen and taken her to Troy, a city in the western part of Asia Minor. The Odyssey describes the journey of the hero Odysseus after the end of the Trojan War. He encountered so many obstacles and adventures that it took him ten years to return to his home on the island of Ithaca, located off the western coast of mainland Greece. Many scholars thus consider the Iliad a poem about war and the Odyssey a postwar poem.1
These epics are important because they explore many universal concepts such as heroism. By reading these epics, we can learn how Greek ideals influenced other civilizations and their literature. Familiarity with these myths also helps us to understand many modern references described later in the book, such as Achilles’ heel and the Trojan horse.
In this book, all references to the Iliad and the Odyssey are from the Robert Fagles translations listed in Further Reading. The first number refers to the book, or chapter, in the Iliad or Odyssey from which the quote is taken, followed by a period, and then the line number(s).
The World at the Time of the Iliad and the Odyssey
Ancient Greece was composed of the mainland and several surrounding islands, including Crete and Sicily. The mainland was located on the European continent east of Italy on the Mediterranean Sea. The Peloponnesus, a southern peninsula, was connected to the mainland by an isthmus near the ancient city of Corinth. Greek warriors in the Iliad came from cities in the Peloponnesus such as Mycenae, Sparta, Tiryns, Argos, and Pylos. Archaeologists have found evidence at these cities which supports Greek mythology about the kings who lived there, and have also found the remains of the magnificent palaces in which they dwelled.
Troy was situated in Asia Minor near the mouth of the Hellespont, or Dardanelles, the waterway connecting Europe and Asia. This location allowed Troy to control much of the shipping in the ancient world. It is possible that the Greeks and Trojans fought the Trojan War over control of these shipping lanes. At the site of Troy, archaeologists have found evidence of several ruined cities, each one built atop the next. One was destroyed between 1250 and 1200 B.C., the period when the Trojan War supposedly took place. Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine if the city was destroyed by Greek invaders, an earthquake, or both. However, the presence of a number of
cities at the same site is evidence that Troy commanded an important position.
In the Odyssey, Odysseus visits various mythical locations. However, his island home of Ithaca may have been the present-day island of the same name. Modern Ithaca is located in western Greece in the chain of Ionian Islands. It, like the Ithaca described in the Odyssey, is mountainous. It also has many archaeological relics of the time period of the Trojan War, so it may very well have been the site of the legendary kingdom of Odysseus.
Thousands of years ago, the Greeks had already gained fame as great seafarers who sailed throughout the Mediterranean. They carried on international trade in Asia Minor and Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Because of this, people from a variety of different backgrounds shared their myths with these Greek sailors. Many of the Greek myths we know today were adaptations of stories that the Greeks gleaned from these other cultures. The far-reaching voyages of the early Greeks help to explain the existence of different versions of each myth, and why the myths of many different cultures often resemble each other.
The Role of History
The history of ancient Greece influenced the development of the Iliad and the Odyssey, as well as Greek mythology as a whole. The earliest peoples migrated to the Greek mainland about 50,000 years ago from southwest Asia and from Africa. Little is known about the region until about 3000 B.C. The people, who lived in small villages, used bronze tools for farming and herding animals. They also used wheeled vehicles for transport.
In about 2000 B.C., tribes from the east came across Asia and built fortified towns on mainland Greece, where they subsisted by farming. At the same time, a powerful civilization developed on Crete. These people were known as the Minoans, after their king, Minos. The Minoans established a palatial civilization. Each palace was surrounded by homes for less wealthy people. The Minoans created a powerful seagoing empire and traded with cities on the other islands in the Aegean Sea, as well as with Sicily, Egypt, and cities on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. The Minoan civilization was known for its international trade, sophisticated art, and fabulous wealth.
The Mycenaean Age (1600 B.C.–1200 B.C.)
By approximately 1600 B.C., civilization on mainland Greece became more powerful. The Greeks of this period, who are called the Mycenaeans, were named after the city of Mycenae. They are usually considered the “earliest Greeks,” because they are the first residents known to have spoken Greek. The Mycenaeans developed a form of writing called Linear B, which they used for keeping accounts rather than for writing literature. Hence, myths from this period were still passed on orally.
A prosperous people, the Mycenaeans, like the Minoans, lived in independent communities built around palaces. The Mycenaeans, famed as fierce warriors, used bronze weapons and rode into battle in horse-drawn chariots. Because they frequently battled one another, the Mycenaeans protected their cities with strong walls. Although the Iliad and the Odyssey were written after this period, Homer set both epics during the Mycenaean Age. The bulk of the major Greek myths are connected with Mycenaean cities and heroes.2
In the 1870s, archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann excavated at Mycenae, where he discovered treasures such as masks of beaten gold, splendid jewelry, and weapons with intricate decorations. These discoveries provided evidence that there truly was a Mycenae “rich in gold,” as Homer had described it in the Iliad. Schliemann also led the first excavations at Troy and continuing archaeological study has provided additional evidence of a powerful Mycenaean-age city there. Archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered a Mycenaean-age palace at Pylos. Many historians believe that this is the palace of Nestor, the wise warrior of the Iliad. Thus, archaeology has provided proof that cities and heroes described in the Iliad and the Odyssey actually existed. However, we must be careful to avoid assuming that every detail about the heroes and locations described in these myths is true.
At about the same time that Mycenaean civilization flourished, Minoan culture declined. Then, in about 1490 to 1470 B.C., the palaces on Crete were destroyed. Although historians remain uncertain as to what caused the ruins, archaeologists have located evidence of fire and massive destruction. The Mycenaeans may have invaded the island and destroyed its civilization or an earthquake may have caused the total destruction.
The Dark Age (1200 B.C.–800 B.C.)
The Mycenaean culture collapsed not long after the destruction of Troy at the end of the thirteenth century B.C. There are many possible causes of the demise of the Mycenaean civilization. These include earthquake; drought; social unrest within Mycenaean society; loss of trade contacts; and invasion of the Dorians, a group of Greek-speaking invaders from the north and east. In fact, the relatively sudden, extensive, and thorough eradication of Mycenaean palatial civilization is likely to have been caused by a combination of these factors. It was a gradual process spread over a full century to a century and a half following the destruction of the last palace.
The decline of Mycenaean culture ushered in a period in Greek history known as the “Dark Age.” The elements that had made Greek civilization great, such as cities and palaces, art and the knowledge of writing, disappeared. Extensive migration occurred far beyond the boundaries of present-day Greece. Many historians believe that the epic stories of the return of the Greek heroes after the Trojan War, the Nostoi, portray these people movements. The strong rulers of the Mycenaean civilization had given way to a society organized around the family.
The Archaic Period (800 B.C.–475 B.C.)
The earliest examples of the Greek alphabet date from the last half of the eighth century B.C. The Greeks began to record poems, plays, and most of the stories that are now considered part of Greek mythology.
By about 750 B.C., the Greek city-state, or polis, had formed. Each city-state was an independent, self-governing community which usually included the city and the surrounding rural area. Athens and Sparta were the most important city-states.
The city-states established colonies over a large area along the Mediterranean coasts and islands. Greek cities were established in Sicily and Italy, along the west coast of Asia Minor, and in the Black Sea region.
In 508 B.C., Athens became the first democracy in the world. The word “democracy” is based on the Greek words demos, “the people,” and kratein, “to rule.” Although Athens was a democracy, all of its people did not have the power to govern. Only citizens, defined as adult males who were born in Athens, were allowed to vote on issues related to governing the city-state. During this period, many Athenians owned slaves. Because women and slaves were not citizens, they were denied the right to vote.
The Classical Period (About 500 B.C.–338 B.C.)
This was the most famous period of ancient Greek civilization, a time when the Greeks reached their highest level of prosperity. Because of the leadership of the statesman Pericles, this period was termed “the Golden Age of Pericles.” Greeks excelled in philosophy, art, literature, history, medicine, and government. Greek mythology flourished as poets recited myths at festivals and in the homes of the wealthy, and the works of Homer supplied the foundation of Greek education.
Athens was the center of most of these important developments. As a result, other city-states such as Sparta became jealous of Athens’ power. In 431 B.C., the Peloponnesian War broke out between Sparta and Athens. After Athens ultimately lost the war in 404 B.C., the power of that city declined.
The Hellenistic Age (4th century B.C.–1st century B.C.)
Internal warfare continued among the Greeks until 338 B.C., when Philip of Macedon, a region in the northern part of Greece, conquered most of the Greek mainland. When Philip died, his son, Alexander, conquered additional territory. He provided a unified government for Asia Minor, Egypt, India, and Greece. However, after Alexander’s sudden death at the age of thirty-three, his generals parceled out his empire among themselves. Still, even though Greece was politically divided, its cultural influence spread throughout all sections of society, especially since Greek was
the language spoken at this time. What is known as Greek or Hellenistic influence continued for more than one thousand years.
Meanwhile, the power of Rome grew as the Romans conquered many tribes in Italy. By about 150 B.C., the Romans took control of Greece. They showed their respect for Greek culture by adopting many of its aspects, such as Greek art and literature. Although the Romans changed the names of many of the Greek gods, they adopted most of the Greek myths.
Religion and Culture
The Greeks believed in many gods and goddesses, which made them what is known as a polytheistic culture. They thought that the gods lived on Mount Olympus, an actual mountain in Thessaly, a region in north central Greece. According to legend, the gods could take on human form, leave their mountain home, and travel anywhere. The Greek gods felt human emotions such as anger, joy, and jealousy. Each god controlled at least one part of human life. For example, Zeus, king of the gods, was the god of thunder and ruled the sky.
The personalities and characteristics of the gods were not clearly defined until Homer wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey.3 He portrayed the gods with vivid language. In the Homeric epics, the Olympian gods take sides in the war and even fight in some of the battles.
In particular, the gods react when the Homeric heroes show too much pride, or hubris. In the Iliad, both Achilles and Agamemnon refuse to give in to each other during their argument. This excessive pride directly influences the course of the Trojan War.
The role of the gods in the fate of mankind is another important part of the epics. Fate is the concept that life’s outcomes are predetermined. Usually Zeus controlled human destiny. He handed out his decisions through the Fates, three of his daughters. The fate of the heroes Achilles and Hector is already set at the beginning of the epics. However, even though the gods were so powerful, they, too, were subject to fate. For example, in the Iliad, Zeus could not prevent the death of his own son, Sarpedon.
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