Iliad is a word which means “a poem about Ilium.” Ilium was another name for the city of Troy. However, the Iliad is not just about the city of Troy and the Trojan War. The first line of Homer’s epic notes that the poem’s subject is:
“Rage—Goddess, sing the rage of Peleus’ son Achilles...”(1.1)2
The rage, or fierce anger, of Achilles occurred after the quarrel he had with Agamemnon. Their quarrel took place in the tenth and last year of the Trojan War. As a result of his rage, Achilles acted unlike a hero by withdrawing from the battle. His pride, or hubris, got in the way of his duty as a warrior. His actions caused the deaths of many warriors, both Trojan and Greek. However, Achilles finally became aware of how his pride had caused his inappropriate actions. This awareness—and his fated death—make him a tragic hero.
At that time, there was no unified Greek nation. Rather, there were many cities, each with its own king and ruling family. Homer referred to the Greek fighting forces as “the Achaeans.” Achaea was a region in the northern Peloponnesus. According to Greek mythology, the Achaeans were descended from Achaeus, the grandson of Hellen. Hellen was the ancestor of the Hellenes, another name for the Greeks. Ancient Greece was known as Hellas.
The Greek and Trojan armies were organized differently. The Greeks were led by King Agamemnon of Mycenae, the brother of Menelaus. However, the army he commanded was made up of smaller independent groups, or contingents. Each contingent had its own commander. Achilles, for example, commanded the Myrmidons. At any time, a commander could withdraw his independent army from the fighting, which Achilles did for a time.
Troy was a powerful city led by a mighty king, Priam. His fifty sons, including Paris and Hector, were part of that army. Troy also received help from independent allies from different nations. These allies included the Amazons, a mighty race of warrior women; the Ethiopians, from the south; and the Lycians, from southern Asia Minor. When Homer compared the Trojans and Greeks, he considered the Trojans more cosmopolitan, or having a world-wide mixture.3
The war took place in Troy and the area surrounding it. In the 1870s, archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann went in search of the site of the ancient city. He excavated what is known as the mound of Hissarlik. This mound is located on the plain by the Hellespont (Dardanelles) in the northwest corner of present-day Turkey. There, Schliemann found evidence of at least nine cities, layered one atop the other. These cities are referred to as Troy 1, Troy 2, and so on. Schliemann believed that Troy 2 was the location of the city where the Trojan War took place. He based his claims on the jewelry and golden treasure that he found there. However, modern archaeologists believe that the mythical city was either Troy 6 or Troy 7, because these ruins are dated closer to the time the war is believed to have occurred.
The power and tragedy of war are a key theme of Homer’s Iliad. Ever since Homer wrote his epic, war has been one of the most powerful themes in literature. Homer does not show war as glorious, although he does describe how it can bring out in warriors their greatest efforts.
Achilles represents an important concept in the Iliad, that of arete, or excellence. To Homer, a warrior’s arete was linked to his skill in battle and to the amount of war prizes he won. War supplied the perfect opportunity to display arete and earn glory, or kleos. Many Greeks, including Achilles, went to Troy because they knew they would win glory there. A warrior was filled with a sense of duty to always try to do his best. When Agamemnon took away part of Achilles’ spoils of war, he diminished Achilles’ arete.
Stories that do not appear in the Iliad provide important background for events that take place in the epic. Achilles’ mother, the sea nymph Thetis, did not want her son to fight in the war. A prophecy foretold that Achilles would die if he went to Troy. If he did not, Achilles would live a long, full life. When Achilles was born, legend told that Thetis tried to make him immortal. She held him by the heel and dipped him in the river Styx, which flowed through the Underworld, the place the Greeks believed people went when they died. Everywhere the water touched Achilles became invulnerable. However, the water never touched the spot on Achilles’ heel where his mother had held him. Thus, Achilles’ heel was left vulnerable, and he would eventually die of a wound to this heel. His death is foretold in the Iliad in Book 19 and the ghost of Achilles appears to Odysseus in Book 15 of the Odyssey. The term Achilles’ heel now refers to any weak or vulnerable spot.
Another story provides valuable information related to events occurring in the Iliad. The mighty Greek fleet gathered at Aulis, preparing to sail to Troy, but the ships could not leave while the north winds blew. Day after day, the north winds raged with no end in sight.
Agamemnon consulted Calchas, the prophet, who revealed that Agamemnon had angered Artemis, the goddess of the hunt, by boasting that he was a better hunter than she. To save the expedition, Agamemnon was going to have to sacrifice his daughter, Iphigenia. Agamemnon tricked Iphigenia into coming to Aulis. He wrote home to his wife that he had arranged for Iphigenia to marry Achilles. When Iphigenia arrived, expecting to be a bride, she was put to death instead. The north winds stopped immediately, and the ships set sail, ready to wage war.
Achilles Argues with Agamemnon
The Greeks had spent nine years warring with the people of Troy. They had also attacked cities in the surrounding countryside. Whenever they won such battles, they collected booty, or treasure, from the people they defeated and made slaves of women they had captured. After one battle, Agamemnon received as a prize of war a young woman named Chryseïs. Her father, Chryses, was a priest of Apollo. Chryses approached the Greek camp, bearing priceless gifts that he hoped Agamemnon would accept in exchange for releasing his daughter.
“Agamemnon, may the gods of Olympus give you Priam’s city of Troy to plunder,” the old priest begged. “Please, accept these gifts as ransom for my daughter, and honor the god I serve, mighty Apollo.”
Agamemnon, who had no intention of giving up Chryseïs, dismissed the priest with an angry order. “Never again, old man, let me catch sight of you by our ships or our camp!”
Chryses fled to a safe place by the seashore. He prayed, “Hear me, Apollo! If ever I served you well, repay me by punishing Agamemnon and his troops.”
His prayer went up to Olympus, where Apollo heard him. Down from the mighty mountain came the god of war with his bow and quiver of arrows. He knelt down on one knee and shot one arrow after another at the Greeks from his silver bow, for nine days in a row. Every time an arrow hit, it spread pestilence throughout the army, killing many warriors.
Achilles called together all the leaders of the Greek expedition. “We cannot fight against both disease and the Trojans. Perhaps we are beaten and the campaign lost. But let us first consult with the prophet Calchas. This holy man may reveal why Apollo rages so against us.”
Calchas knew that Agamemnon would dislike his prophecy, so he asked Achilles to save him from Agamemnon’s anger. “Apollo sends down his deadly arrows because Agamemnon has angered him by sending away his priest. The king ignored Chryses’ ransom and refused to return his daughter.”
Agamemnon stood, his eyes blazing with fury, and turned upon the prophet. “Never do your prophecies favor me! Now you say I must give up Chryseïs! I am willing to give her back if that will be best for my troops. Just bring me another prize in her place.” Agamemnon felt that he would be disgraced if he did not have a war prize as wonderful as Chryseïs.
Achilles quickly answered. “Just how, Agamemnon, can you receive another prize now? All our treasures captured in war have been given out to the rank and file of our troops. Should we force one of them to give up his prize? That would be truly disgraceful.”
Agamemnon accused Achilles of selfishness. “Would you keep your own prize while I sit here empty-handed? No, if I have to give up Chryseïs, I will take your prize of war, the young woman Briseïs, as my own, just to show you how much greater I am than you!”
Achilles fell into a rage, determined to draw his
sword and slay Agamemnon for this slight to his honor. “See here, you scoundrel,” he raged at Agamemnon. “Even though you command our forces, you have no right to take my war prize. Whenever we battle our foe, you already take more booty for yourself. Yet I have always done more of the actual fighting. By rights, I deserve all of the booty I have received and more.”
Agamemnon replied, “I am the commander of these forces. I care not what you do, nor do I fear your rage. I shall keep Briseïs.”
A furious Achilles stormed off to his tents where his friend, Patroclus, waited along with the rest of Achilles’ troops, who were known as the Myrmidons. Achilles commanded Patroclus to surrender Briseïs to Agamemnon’s men. But because his anger against the king had not lessened, Achilles withdrew from all the fighting and stayed in his tent. He forbid the Myrmidons to fight under any other commander.
Thetis, Achilles’ mother, was as furious with Agamemnon as was her son. “Have nothing more to do with the Greeks, my son,” said Thetis. “I shall go up to Mount Olympus where the gods reside and speak on your behalf to Zeus, the king of all the gods.” Thetis asked Zeus to give success not to the Greeks, but to the Trojans. In this way, she hoped that Agamemnon would suffer for the dishonor and anger he had caused her son.
Zeus decided to favor Thetis’ plea. He knew that without Achilles, the Greeks had no chance of defeating the Trojans. That night, Zeus sent to Agamemnon a dream that was untrue. The dream foretold that the Greeks would win if he attacked.
The next day, Achilles remained in his tent while the Greeks fought fiercely, with neither side winning. Suddenly the fighting stopped, and the armies drew apart. Two warriors—the Trojan, Paris, and the Greek, Menelaus—faced each other. The two would fight each other to the death to determine the outcome of the battle.
Paris struck at Menelaus with his spear, but Menelaus pushed the spear back with his shield. Menelaus then hurled his own spear. It tore Paris’ tunic, but did not wound him. Menelaus quickly drew his sword, but it mysteriously fell from his hand, broken in pieces. Quickly, Menelaus jumped on top of Paris and grabbed the strap of his helmet. He began to drag Paris back to the Greek camp. However, Aphrodite helped Paris. She tore away the strap of the helmet, so that Menelaus lost hold of Paris.
Then, Aphrodite caught Paris up in a cloud and took him back to Troy. He remained safely behind the walls of Troy, relaxing with Helen, while Hector and the rest of the Trojans prepared to fight on.
Agamemnon announced to both the Greeks and the Trojans that Menelaus had won the fight between Menelaus and Paris. He insisted that the Trojans give Helen back to Menelaus. The Trojans were about to agree, for they did not respect Paris. A true warrior would not hide behind the city walls with a woman while his comrades went into battle. Then, Hera and Athena tricked a Trojan warrior into shooting an arrow at Menelaus, and the Greeks fought back in a heightened rage.
At the same time, Zeus recalled his promise to Thetis to avenge the wrongs done to Achilles. Zeus ordered the rest of the gods to stay in Olympus. He went down to the battlefield and helped Hector fight with brilliance. One Greek warrior after another fell beneath his mighty spear. By nightfall, the Trojans had driven the Greeks back to their ships.
That night, the Trojans celebrated, while the Greeks pondered their fate. Agamemnon was all for sailing back to Greece. Nestor, the oldest and wisest of the commanders, spoke out against Agamemnon. He criticized him for his treatment of Achilles. “If you, my great Agamemnon, had not angered Achilles, we would not now have suffered such defeats,” Nestor said. “How can you tame his anger and convince him to rejoin us once again?”
The Greeks cheered at Nestor’s advice. Agamemnon admitted that he had acted in a selfish manner. “I will send Briseïs back to Achilles with my best messengers,” Agamemnon said. “And with her, I will send many gifts of great splendor, treasures certain to convince Achilles to join us again.” Agamemnon carefully chose his messengers: Odysseus, who was glib of tongue; Nestor, the wisest and most experienced of the Greek warriors; Ajax, the brave fighter; and Phoenix, a priest of Zeus who was almost like a father to Achilles.
Achilles, along with his closest friend, Patroclus, welcomed the messengers into his tent. “Make yourselves comfortable,” Achilles said. “Patroclus, bring a bigger wine bowl and mix a stronger wine.” Achilles carved up and served juicy meats, while Patroclus also brought bread.
Right then, Odysseus addressed Achilles. “Mighty Achilles, Agamemnon will fill your ship with gold and bronze from the spoils of Troy, if only you will rejoin us in battle. He offers you the hand of any of his daughters in marriage and seven cities as marriage gifts. And of course, Briseïs will be yours. I ask you to consider the fate of your fellow Greeks, who are weary from fighting. Even if you cannot find it in your heart to forgive Agamemnon, will you not consider helping your comrades in arms?”
“I have no need of the treasures Agamemnon offers, for indeed, they are like bribery,” Achilles said. “I will marry no daughter of Agamemnon. And though he claims to be a mighty warrior, Agamemnon is shameless in that he will not even make his request to me face-to-face. All the treasures of Egypt would not convince me to rejoin him. In fact, tomorrow at dawn, I shall sail home.”
Achilles’ response astounded Odysseus and the other messengers. Phoenix spoke out. “Sail home? Is this the plan you have been hatching, Achilles? Have you no courage left? I, who have treated you like a son, have never given you the advice to run from danger.”
And so, Agamemnon’s messengers brought him word that Achilles’ proud spirit had overruled his love for his fellow warriors and that he refused to join the Greeks in battle. All during the night, Agamemnon struggled over what to do. Should the Greeks fight on or should they leave Troy in disgrace? Agamemnon tore at his hair, unable to sleep. Finally, he sought the counsel of Nestor. Together, they roused all the warriors. With Nestor’s advice adding weight to Agamemnon’s words, the Greeks decided to go into battle against the Trojans the next day.
Clad in armor of gleaming bronze, Agamemnon led his troops. Although they fought with great courage, the Greeks lost many warriors. Slashed by a sharp spear, Agamemnon returned to his ship to tend his wounds. When Hector saw that Agamemnon was no longer fighting, he rallied his men and drove the Greeks back to the very beaches where their ships were moored.
From his camp, Achilles watched the fighting, certain that the Achaeans would again beg him to rejoin the battle. He sent Patroclus to ask Nestor which Greeks had suffered wounds.
“Why does Achilles seek word of his comrades when he will not even help them in battle?” Nestor asked Patroclus. The wise old warrior knew that Achilles was only searching for bad news about the Greeks.
Patroclus, though he remained friendly to Achilles, could no longer bear to watch the Greeks suffer such huge losses. He begged Achilles to lend him his armor. “If the Trojans see your armor,” Patroclus said, “they may confuse me for you. They may let up in their fierce fighting.”
Achilles agreed to his friend’s request. “As a man dishonored, I will not fight unless the battle comes near my own ships. But you may take my armor. And I will order my troops to follow you into battle. Just do not go near the walls of Troy, where Hector is strongest. I wish you well, my friend.”
Patroclus donned the gleaming armor of the mighty Achilles. The Trojans recognized it right away and fled in fear, because they thought that Achilles had rejoined the Greeks. At first, Patroclus fought with all the valor of his friend. He led the Myrmidons bravely, even killing Sarpedon, son of Zeus.
But Patroclus forgot the warning of Achilles and came near the slope leading to the walls of Troy, where Apollo stood. Three times Patroclus charged the high wall and three times Apollo hurled him back. The fourth time, Apollo cried out with words of terror, “Go back, Patroclus. Fate has not willed that the walls of Troy fall before your spear.”
As Patroclus backed away, Apollo whispered to Hector. “Why stop your fighting now? This is your chance to
drive the Greeks into the sea. Drive your chariot straight at Patroclus. I, Apollo, shall give you glory!”
Hector whipped his stallions into a fury, and the steeds charged at Patroclus. Apollo knocked Patroclus’ helmet off his head. As Patroclus, dazed, fell toward the ground, Hector rammed him with his spear. Horror filled the Achaeans as they realized that the armor of Achilles had not been enough to protect Patroclus.
As Patroclus struggled to breathe, he warned Hector, “Even now as I lay dying, know that you, too, shall soon follow me in death. Already I see the strong force of fate rising up to bring you down at the hands of Achilles!” Then Patroclus breathed his last, and his soul flew down to Hades, the land of the dead.
Hector stood over the body of Patroclus, planted his heel on Patroclus’ chest, and pulled out his spear. He stripped Achilles’ armor from Patroclus’ body and put it on himself. As Hector put on the armor, Zeus watched and foretold his doom:
Poor soldier. Never a thought of death weighs down
your spirit now, yet death is right beside you...
You don the deathless arms of a great fighter—
and all other fighters tremble before him, true,
but you, you killed his comrade, gentle, strong...
never again will you return from battle,
Hector.... (17.230-238) 4
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q: What caused the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles?
A: Achilles called for the Greek army leaders to meet to convince Agamemnon to let Chryseïs go. Agamemnon was furious that he had to give up the girl, so he took for himself Achilles’ slave girl, Briseïs.
Q: How did Achilles react to Agamemnon’s action?
A: Achilles was so angry with Agamemnon that he withdrew from the fighting and refused to let his troops fight with the Greeks.
Q: After Achilles withdrew from the fighting, which two warriors faced each other in one-on-one combat? What happened?
Mythology of the Iliad and the Odyssey Page 3
