10. Davidson, “Black Carib Habitats in Central America.”
11. Mann, 1491, 254–57.
12. The material that follows is based on Denevan, “The Pristine Myth.”
13. For the influence of the Iroquois Confederacy on the architects of the US Constitution, see Johansen, The Forgotten Founders.
14. Lyons, a professor at the State University of New York at Buffalo, says that when the American colonists borrowed from the Haudenosaunee system in forming the US government, they neglected to include the spirit world, and thus began the problems that beset US government today.
15. See Miller, Coacoochee’s Bones, 1–12.
16. Mann, 1491, 332.
17. Thomas Morton, quoted in ibid., 250.
18. Ibid., 251–52.
19. See David Wade Chambers, “Native American Road Systems and Trails,” Udemy, http://www.udemy.com/lectures/unit-4-native-american-road-systems-and-trails-76573 (accessed September 24, 2013). Graphics show locations of major roads.
20. Starr, History of the Cherokee Indians and Their Legends and Folk Lore.
21. Conley, Cherokee Nation, cited in Cox, The Red Land to the South, 8.
CHAPTER TWO: CULTURE OF CONQUEST
Epigraph: Marx, Capital, 823; http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch31.htm.
1. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, 283–85.
2. Linebaugh, The Magna Carta Manifesto, 26–27.
3. Two outstanding historical works, which have not been surpassed, probe in depth these prior colonial practices and institutions. In reference to the Iberian Peninsula and the Moors, see Kamen, Spanish Inquisition. For England’s colonization of Ireland and the thirteen American colonies, see Jennings, Invasion of America.
4. Kingston-Mann, “Return of Pierre Proudhon.”
5. Federici, Caliban and the Witch, 184.
6. Ibid., 171–72, 179–80.
7. Ibid., 237.
8. Roth, Conversos, Inquisition, and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, 229.
9. Sánchez-Albornoz, España, un enigma histórico, 677.
10. Stannard, American Holocaust, 246. For an opposing view, see Anderson, Ethnic Cleansing and The Indian.
11. Jennings, Invasion of America, 168.
12. See Curtis, Apes and Angels.
13. Calloway, review of The Americas That Might Have Been, 196.
14. Keen, “White Legend Revisited,” 353.
15. Denevan, “Pristine Myth,” 4–5.
16. Dobyns, Their Number Become Thinned, 2. See also Dobyns, Native American Historical Demography; and Dobyns, “Estimating Aboriginal American Population,” 295–416, and “Reply,” 440–44.
17. Borah, “America as Model,” 381.
18. Cook, Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization.
19. Wilcox, Pueblo Revolt and the Mythology of Conquest, 11.
CHAPTER THREE: CULT OF THE COVENANT
1. Mann, 1491, 323.
2. Rostlund, Myth of a Natural Prairie Belt in Alabama, 409.
3. Mann, 1491, 252.
4. Denevan, “Pristine Myth,” 369–85.
5. Faragher, Buhle, Czitrom, and Armitage, Out of Many, 1–24. The title of the textbook reflected its intent. The title of the first chapter is “A Continent of Villages, to 1500.”
6. Jennings, Invasion of America, 15.
7. For a revealing comparative study, see Gump, “Civil Wars in South Dakota and South Africa,’” 427–44. In relying on the ancient origin story of the covenant, the modern state of Israel is also using exceptionalist ideology, refusing to acknowledge the settler-colonial nature of the state. Donald Harman Akenson, God’s Peoples: Covenant and Land in South Africa, Israel, and Ulster (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1991), 151–82, 227–62, 311–48.
8. Akenson, God’s Peoples, 9.
9. Jacobson, The Story of Stories, 10.
10. Akenson, God’s Peoples, 30–31, 73–74.
11. Ibid., 112.
12. See Miller, Errand in the Wilderness; Jennings, Invasion of America; Vowell, Wordy Shipmates.
13. Phillips, Cousins’ Wars, 177–90.
14. Akensen, God’s Peoples, 118.
15. See Green, People with No Name.
16. The presidents include Andrew Jackson, 1829–37; James K. Polk, 1845–49; James Buchanan, 1856–61; Andrew Johnson, 1865–69; Ulysses S. Grant, 1869–77; Chester A. Arthur, 1881–85; Grover Cleveland, 1885–89 and 1893–97; Benjamin Harrison, 1889–93; William McKinley, 1897–1901; Theodore Roosevelt, 1901–9; Woodrow Wilson, 1913–21; Harry S. Truman, 1949–53; Richard M. Nixon, 1969–74; Jimmy Carter, 1977–81; George H. W. Bush, 1989–93; Bill Clinton, 1993–2001; George W. Bush, 2001–2009; and Barack Obama, 2009–.
17. For a Scots-Irish family history, see James Webb, Born Fighting. Webb proudly served in the US Marine Corps and became navy secretary in the Reagan administration and later a Democratic Party senator from Virginia. Webb assumes that the United States is a great and powerful country and owes that position largely to Scots-Irish settlers.
18. Degler, Out of Our Past, 51.
CHAPTER FOUR: BLOODY FOOTPRINTS
Epigraph: John Grenier, The First Way of War, 5, 10. Grenier is an air force officer and associate professor of history at the US Air Force Academy.
1. LaDuke, Militarization of Indian Country, xv–xvii.
2. O’Brien, American Indian Tribal Governments, 205–6. To be recognized as “Indian Country,” usually the land must either be within an Indian reservation or it must be federal trust land (land technically owned by the federal government but held in trust for a tribe or tribal member). For most purposes, the types of Indian country are as follows:
1. Reservations (18 USC 1151(a)). Historically, Indian reservations were created when particular tribes signed treaties with the United States. Among other things (treaties often included provisions for tribal members to receive law enforcement, education, health care benefits, and to retain hunting/fishing rights), the tribes typically transferred their traditional lands to the United States government but “reserved” part of their lands for tribal purposes. These “reserved” lands became known as “reservations.” Later, many “reservations” were created by presidential executive orders or by congressional enactments. As defined by 18 USC 1151(a), “Indian country” consists of all land within a reservation including land that is privately owned and land that is subject to a right-of-way (for example, a publicly accessible road). However, some reservations have been “disestablished” or nullified by such things as federal court decisions or later congressional enactments.
2. Informal Reservations. If a reservation has been disestablished or if the legal existence of a reservation is not clear, remaining trust lands that have been set aside for Indian use are still Indian country (Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Chickasaw Nation, 515 US 450 and Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Sac & Fox Nation, 508 US 114).
3. Dependent Indian communities (18 USC 1151(b)). In US v. Sandoval (231 US 28) the US Supreme Court ruled that pueblo tribal lands in New Mexico are “Indian country” and in US v. McGowan (302 US 535) the Court ruled that Indian colonies in Nevada are also “Indian country.” The results of these decisions were later codified at 18 USC 1151(b) as “dependent Indian communities.” The Court has interpreted “dependent Indian communities” to be land that is federally supervised and which has been set aside for the use of Indians, Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie (522 US 520).
4. Allotments (18 USC 1151(c)). Primarily from 1887 until 1934, the federal government ran programs where some parcels of tribal trust land were allotted or assigned to particular Indian persons or particular Indian families (but further transfers were to be temporarily restricted by the federal government). Some of these allotments were later converted to private ownership. However, when the allotment programs were frozen by congressional enactment in 1934, many parcels of land were still in restricted or trust status; these remaining parcels are “Indian country�
�� even if they are no longer within a reservation.
5. Special Designations. Congress can specially designate that certain lands are Indian country for jurisdictional purposes even if those lands might not fall within one of the categories mentioned above. An example of this is Santa Fe Indian School in Santa Fe, New Mexico (Public Law 106–568, section 824(c)) (O’Brien). “What Is Indian Country?,” Indian Country Criminal Jurisdiction, http://tribaljurisdiction.tripod.com/id7.html (accessed September 25, 2013).
3. Grenier, First Way of War, 5, 10. See also Kaplan, “Prologue: Injun Country,” in Imperial Grunts, 3–16; and Cohen, Conquered into Liberty.
4. Grenier, First Way of War, 1.
5. Bailyn, Barbarous Years.
6. Grenier, First Way of War, 4–5, 7.
7. Ibid., 21.
8. From Samuel G. Drake, Biography and History of the Indians of North America (Boston, 1841), quoted in Nabokov, Native American Testimony, 72.
9. For the role of Pocahontas in the Powhatan resistance, see Townsend, Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma.
10. The Encarta World English Dictionary defines the verb “to extirpate” as “to completely get rid of, kill off, or destroy something or somebody considered undesirable” or “to remove something surgically.”
11. Grenier, First Way of War, 22–26.
12. Ibid., 34.
13. For a brilliant examination of this issue, see Allen, Invention of the White Race.
14. Zinn, People’s History of the United States, 39–42; Washburn, Governor and the Rebel.
15. Foner, Give Me Liberty!, 100.
16. Quoted in Vowell, Wordy Shipmates, 31.
17. Grenier, First Way of War, 26–27.
18. Ibid., 27.
19. Ibid., 27–28.
20. Quoted in Zinn, People’s History of the United States, 15.
21. “King Philip” was what the English called Wampanoag leader Metacom.
22. Colonialist recruitment of Native guides, informants, and fighters had its counterpart in the twentieth century. For example, the federally funded Guardians of the Oglala Nation (GOONs) functioned as an Indigenous paramilitary organization on the Pine Ridge Sioux Reservation in the early 1970s, attacking and murdering anyone, including old and infirm people, who supported the American Indian Movement.
23. Grenier, First Way of War, 29–34, 36–37, 39.
24. Taylor, American Colonies, 290.
25. Grenier, First Way of War, 39–41.
26. Ibid., 42–43.
27. Ibid., 52.
28. Ibid., 55–57.
29. Ibid., 58, 60–61.
30. See Szabo, The Seven Years War in Europe; and Anderson, War That Made America.
31. Grenier, First Way of War, 66, 77.
32. Ibid., 115–17.
33. Amherst quoted in Calloway, Scratch of a Pen, 73.
34. Quoted in Grenier, First Way of War, 144.
35. Ibid., 41.
36. Ibid., 141–43.
37. From The Colonial and State Records of North Carolina 5 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina), quoted in Nabokov, Native American Testimony, 41–42.
38. Calloway, Scratch of a Pen, 168–69.
39. Grenier, First Way of War, 148.
40. For an in-depth study of Hollywood “cowboy and Indian” movies, see Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation.
41. Dunmore quoted in Grenier, First Way of War, 150.
42. Jennings, “The Indians’ Revolution,” 337–38.
43. For the integral role of spiritual leaders in Indigenous resistance, see Dowd, Spirited Resistance.
44. Grenier, First Way of War, 153–54.
45. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 223.
46. Grenier, First Way of War, 161.
47. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 222–23.
48. Grenier, First Way of War, 152.
49. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 197–98.
50. Ibid., 197.
51. Grenier, First Way of War, 51–53.
52. Ibid., 17–18.
53. Ibid., 59–63.
54. Washington and Sullivan quoted in Drinnon, Facing West, 331.
55. Grenier, First Way of War, 163, 166–68.
CHAPTER FIVE: THE BIRTH OF A NATION
Epigraph: King, Why We Can’t Wait, 41–42. Orig. published Harper and Row, 1964.
1. Richter, Facing East From Indian Country, 223–24.
2. See Bogus, “Hidden History of the Second Amendment”; and Hadden, Slave Patrols.
3. Grenier, First Way of War, 170–72.
4. Anderson and Cayton, Dominion of War, 104–59.
5. Grenier, First Way of War, 193–95.
6. Ibid., 195–97.
7. Ibid., 198–200.
8. Calloway, Shawnees and the War for America, 102–3.
9. Grenier, First Way of War, 201–2; Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 224–25.
10. Calloway, Shawnees and the War for America, 137. See also Edmunds, Tecumseh and the Quest for American Indian Leadership; and Dowd, Spirited Resistance.
11. Grenier, First Way of War, 206.
12. Ibid., 206–7.
13. Ibid., 207–8.
14. Quoted in Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 231.
15. Grenier, First Way of War, 209–10, 213.
16. Ibid., 172.
17. Ibid., 174–75.
18. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 32.
19. Grenier, First Way of War, 176–77.
20. Ibid., 181, 184.
21. Ibid., 181–87.
22. Ibid., 187–92.
23. Ibid., 192–93.
24. Ibid., 205.
25. Ibid., 221–22.
CHAPTER SIX: THE LAST OF THE MOHICANS AND ANDREW JACKSON’S WHITE REPUBLIC
Epigraph: Fanon, Wretched of the Earth, 33.
1. See Tucker and Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty.
2. Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy, 109–11; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 163–64.
3. See Anderson and Cayton, Dominion of War.
4. Quoted in Phillips, Cousins’ Wars, 3.
5. Grenier, First Way of War, 220.
6. Ibid., 214–15.
7. Remini, Life of Andrew Jackson, 62–69.
8. Grenier, First Way of War, 216–17.
9. Brinkley, Unfinished Nation, 85; Takaki, Iron Cages, 96.
10. Takaki, Different Mirror, 85–86.
11. Brinkley, Unfinished Nation, 84. On Jackson’s vision to create a populist empire, see Anderson and Cayton, Dominion of War, 207–46.
12. Grenier, First Way of War, 204.
13. Ibid., 205.
14. Ibid., 218–20.
15. Ibid., 215. See also Saunt, New Order of Things, 236–41.
16. Miller, Coacoochee’s Bones, xi.
17. Quoted in Rogin, Fathers and Children, 129.
18. Slotkin, Fatal Environment, 81–106.
19. In the twentieth century, during the dark days of the Depression and war, 1932–43, Laura Ingalls Wilder updated and consolidated the myth, centering it on women, in her Little House on the Prairie series (with four additional books published after her death).
20. Reynolds, Waking Giant, 236–41.
21. Jennings, Invasion of America, 327–28.
22. Stegner, Where the Bluebird Sings to the Lemonade Springs, 71–72.
23. D. H. Lawrence, quoted in Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence, 466.
24. Dimock, Empire for Liberty, 9.
25. Slotkin, Regeneration through Violence, 394–95.
26. US historians see Jacksonian democracy as spanning nearly three decades, 1824 to 1852, rather than just Jackson’s eight-year presidency (1828–36). There are dozens of books and articles on the era of Jacksonian democracy, as well as biographies of Andrew Jackson’s life. Historian Robert V. Remini is the foremost Jacksonian scholar, with multiple books; his Life of Andrew Jackson (2010) is a short compilation of his previous work. A revision
ist view distinguished from Remini’s admiring portrayal is Michael Paul Rogin, Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian (1975). Twenty-first-century works include Brands, Andrew Jackson; Meacham, American Lion; Reynolds, Waking Giant; and Wilentz, Andrew Jackson.
27. Mankiller and Wallis, Mankiller, 51.
28. Rogin, Fathers and Children, 3–4.
29. Stannard, American Holocaust, 122.
30. Ibid., 122–23.
31. Prucha, American Indian Treaties, 184.
32. Quoted in Zinn, People’s History of the United States, 129–30.
33. Ibid., 138.
34. Mooney, Historical Sketch of the Cherokee, 124.
35. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 372–73.
36. Rogin, Fathers and Children, 3–4.
37. “Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address,” transcript, New York Times, January 20, 2009.
CHAPTER SEVEN: SEA TO SHINING SEA
1. Ford quoted in Kenner, History of New Mexico–Plains Indian Relations, 83; Thompson, Recollections of Mexico, 72.
2. Whitman quoted in McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State, 11. Whitman expressed many such views during the US-Mexican War in the newspaper he edited, the Brooklyn Daily Eagle. For an in-depth study of the intellectual, poetic, media, and mass popularity of the war, see Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas; also see Reynolds, Walt Whitman’s America.
3. Whitman quoted in Reynolds, John Brown Abolitionist, 449.
4. Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 185.
5. See Zacks, Pirate Coast; and Boot, Savage Wars of Peace, 3–29.
6. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 145–75.
7. Pike, Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike. Coues, Pike’s editor, characterized the expedition’s straying into Spanish territory and his arrest as “a particular accident of a general design” (499). See also Owsley and Smith, Filibusters and Expansionists.
8. See Unrau, Indians, Alcohol, and the Roads to Taos and Santa Fe.
9. Pike, Expeditions, 499; Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 117.
10. See Weber, Taos Trappers.
11. Dunbar-Ortiz, Roots of Resistance, 80; see also Hall, Laws of Mexico.
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