Plenty Horses, 156–57
Plymouth Colony, 49, 62–64
Polk, James K., 131
Ponce de León, Juan, 43
Pontiac, 84
Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763), 68
Poor People’s Campaign, 182–83
population: during colonization, 39–42; in precolonial America, 17
Portuguese colonialism, 42–43, 199
poverty: of Chagossians, 225; colonialism and, 262n23; on reservations, 191, 208, 211; War on, 182, 208–9
POW. See prisoner of war (POW)
powerlessness, 211
Powhatan Confederacy, 60–61
prairies: habitat management on, 45; in precolonial America, 24–25
Pratt, Richard Henry, 151
precolonial North America, 15–31; Aztec civilization in, 20–21; corn cultivation in, 21–25; governance in, 25–27; Indigenous peoples as stewards of the land in, 27–30; Mesoamerica in, 17–21; peoples of the corn in, 30–31; population in, 17
Price, David H., 227–28
prisoner of war (POW): William “Rusty” Calley as, 192; Geronimo as, 150–51; return of remains of, 207; vs. unlawful combatant, 222
privatization: and allotments, 157–61, 249n4; of common land, 34–36; of property, 98; of war, 65
Prophet’s Town, 84, 86
Pueblo Indians: and allotments, 160–61; history of, 20, 22, 23, 29; land claims by, 171, 180; and militarization, 226; military assault on, 125
Pueblo Lands Act (1924), 171
Puritans, 48, 62–64
Quakers, 200
Quincentennial year, 197–98
racism: and anticommunism, 175–76; of Ralph Waldo Emerson, 131; irregular warfare and, 59; and multiculturalism, 5; neo-, 230; in 1920s, 170; and racial superiority, 231; of US policies, 1–2; and Vietnam War, 192; and white supremacy, 36–39; of Walt Whitman, 117–18, 253n2
railroads: across reservations, 188; and buffalo, 143; investment of Indigenous funds in, 168; land grants to, 140, 141–42, 145; workers strike at, 166
rangers and ranging: in French and Indian War, 67, 68, 69, 71; in Georgia, 66, 92; and Haudenosaunee, 77; in Illinois and Indiana Territories, 87; in late seventeenth century, 63–64; and manifest destiny, 220; and Miamis, 82; in Ohio Country, 71–75, 82–83; and Tecumseh, 86; in Tennessee, 88–90; in Texas, 127, 130–31, 150
Redhouse, John, 210
“redskins,” 64–65
Red Sticks, 98–99
religion: absorbing Christianity into, 79; and assimilation, 151; of Calvinists, 47–51, 54; and Crusades, 32–33, 36–37; and Doctrine of Discovery, 200–201; Kiowa, 143; Mayan, 18; of Pueblos, 125; and repatriation of ancestral remains, 207; of Sioux Nation, 188, 189; Sun Dance, 21; and Tecumseh, 85
reparations for land claims, 205–8
repatriation, 206, 207, 231–33
reservations, 10–12, 249n2; and allotments, 158, 159, 189–90;
Anishinaabe, 216; Apache, 150; Cheyenne, 146, 149–50, 152; crowding in, 157; Ghost Dance in, 154; and Indigenous funds, 168; industrial plants in, 209; informal, 249n2; Lakota, 155; and land restoration, 171; migration to and from, 259n20; Modoc, 223; Navajo, 172; in New England, 114; poverty in, 191, 208, 211; railroad and, 188; Sand Creek, 137–38; Sioux, 164, 185, 190, 207–8; and termination policy, 174, 191; trading posts in, 144; violence against women in, 176, 214, 262n32
resistance: to allotment, 158–61; by Apaches, 131–32, 150; in California, 129; by Cherokee Nation, 69, 75, 76, 87–90; by Cheyennes, 149, 165; during civil rights era, 175–77; culture of, 79; and Ghost Dance, 153–57; and irregular forces, 58; in King Philip’s War, 64; by Miamis, 81; by Muskogee Nation, 90–92; in Ohio Country, 83; by Seminole Nation, 101–2; of Sioux, 165; by Tecumseh, 72, 84–87; in Virginia, 61; in West, 147, 149–53
restitution, land, 175, 179–80, 181, 205–8, 258–59n5
restoration for land claims, 205–8, 236
revisionism, 5–6, 7
roads in precolonial America, 28–30
Rogers, Robert, 68, 94, 227
Rogers’s Rangers, 68, 71
Rogin, Michael Paul, 109, 114
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 170–71, 173
Roosevelt, Theodore, 53, 162, 165–66
Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine, 166
Ross, John, 135
sacred corn food, 16–17
sacred land, 55, 152, 179–80, 206–7, 211, 236
Sanchez, Marie, 203–4
Sand Creek Massacre (1864), 93, 137–38
Sandoz, Mari, 149
San Martín, José de, 119–20
Santa Fe Trail, 122
Sauks, 111
scalping, 38, 52, 63, 64–65
scorched-earth campaigns. See total war
Scotland, England’s invasion of, 38
Scots-Irish, 51–54, 248n17
Second Amendment rights, 50, 80, 227–28
“Second Barbary War” (1815–16), 119
Second Seminole War (1835–42), 101–2
self-determination, 181–86, 202–5; economic, 208–10; and Indigenous governance, 215–17
Seminole Nation, 26, 93, 101, 113
Seminole Wars (1817–-58), 97, 101–2
Senate Subcommittee on Indian Affairs, 180, 258n5
Seneca Nation, 77, 82
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 221
Serra, Junípero, 128
settler colonialism, 2–10; as framework for US history, 7–8; and genocide, 2, 6, 8–10; legacy of, 229–30; and manifest destiny, 2–3, 5–6; and national narrative, 2, 3–4, 12–13; and neocolonialism, 7; and Ulster-Scots, 51–54; and US West or Borderlands history, 7–8
settler-farmers, 61–62, 70–71
settler patriotism, 102–7
settler-rangers. See rangers
Seven Years’ War (1756–63), 53, 67–71
Sevier, John, 88–90, 94
Seward, William H., 163
sexual violence, 212–14, 262n32
Shawnee Nation, 71–73, 75, 83, 84–87
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 9–10, 94, 139, 144–46, 156
Sioux Nation: Crazy Horse and, 152; Ghost Dance of, 153–54; historical experience of, 186–91; massacre at Wounded Knee of, 154–56; reparations to, 207–8; seizure of Black Hills from, 180, 188, 207; and termination policy, 190
Sitting Bull (Tatanka Yotanka), 151–52, 154
Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. See Haudenosaunee
slavery. See African American slaves and slavery; African slaves and slavery
Slotkin, Richard, 107, 178–79, 235
smallpox, 62, 68
Smith, John, 28, 59, 60, 195
Smith, Redbird, 158
social contract, 52
social Darwinism, 39, 118
social dysfunction, 211–14
social movement theory, 230
soldiers: buffalo, 143, 146–49, 167; Indigenous, 135, 158; Scots-Irish, 54
soldier-settlers, 53, 125
Sonora Desert, early agriculture in, 21–22
South Africa: British defeat of Boers in, 140; as covenant state, 47, 48, 50
South America, independence movement in, 119–20
sovereignty: and Curtis Act, 158; and Dawes Allotment Act, 158; and Doctrine of Discovery, 200, 214, 217; and fishing rights, 182; and future of US, 229–31; and Indian Appropriation Act, 142; and Indian Claims Commission, 173; and Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 210; and Indian Reorganization Act, 190; in Indigenous constitutions, 216; and Indigenous governance, 215; and Indigenous movement, 10; industrialization and, 168; and narrative of dysfunction, 211; in pre-colonial period, 25–26; and repatriation, 207, 231, 233; and self-determination, 202–4; and Termination Act, 173–74; and Trail of Broken Treaties, 185
Spain: colonialism by, 199; in “New World,” 42–43; and Quincentennial year, 197–98
Spanish-American War (1898), 120
Spanish Florida (Guale), 66, 90
Spanish settler-colonists in Mexic
o, 125
“special operations,” 58
Special Operations Command, 221–22
Spicer, Edward H., 32
spirit world in Indigenous governance, 26, 246n14
Spott, Robert, 169–70
Standing Bear, Luther, 157
Stannard, David, 37
Starr, Emmet, 30
starvation: and allotments, 189; buffalo hunting and, 187; in California, 130; of Cherokees, 88–89; of Chickamaugas, 89; of Dakota Sioux, 136; in Illinois and Indiana Territories, 87; of Lakotas, 155; of Muskogees, 99; of Navajos, 139; of Pequots, 63; of Sauks, 111; Sherman on, 156; in Tidewater War, 61; of Yuroks, 169
Stegner, Wallace, 105
Stone, Oliver, 228
Struck By the Ree, 164–65
Sun Dance, 21, 189
Sun Elk, 212
Survival of American Indians Association, 182
Susquehannock people, 61
Tainos, 23
Taos Blue Lake, 179–80, 258n5
Taos Pueblo, 212; and Carlisle Indian Industrial School, 212; early history of, 22; sacred lands of, 179–80, 258n5; US trading with, 171
Tatanka Yotanka (Sitting Bull), 151–52, 154
Tecumseh, 72, 84–87, 93, 98, 144
Tennessee, formation of, 87–90
Tenochtitlán, 19
Tenskwatawa, 72, 84–85, 86
Teotihuacán, 19
Tepanec people, 19
terminal narratives, 39–42
Termination Act (1953), 173–74, 175
termination policy, 10, 12, 190, 191
terra nullius, 2, 230–31
Texas: Indigenous peoples of, 126; land grants in, 123, 126–27; republic of, 127; Spanish control of, 125–26; statehood of, 123–24, 127
Texas Rangers, 127, 130–31, 150
Texcoco, 19
Thlopthlocco, 158–59
Tidewater War (1644–46), 61
Tippecanoe, “battle” of, 86
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 113–14
Tohono O’odam Nation, 126
Toltec civilization, 19
torture: return of legalized, 222–24
total war: against Apaches, 132, 138; against Cherokee Nation, 75, 89; during Civil War, 94; and future of United States, 218; against Muskogee Nation, 93; against Navajos, 138; in Ohio Country, 81–83; in Philippines, 166; against Plains Indians, 139; under William T. Sherman, 144–45; in Virginia Country, 61; during war of independence, 76, 77; in West, 144–46, 149; after World War II, 12
trade routes, 41
trading: by Aztecs, 20–21; in Mexico, 121–22
trading posts, 144
The Trail of Broken Treaties, 185
Trail of Tears, 112–14
treaties, 255n19; with Confederacy, 135; for fishing rights, 181–82; halt in making of, 142; honoring of, 202–3, 236; and Indian Appropriation Act, 142; and Indian Claims Commission, 174; and Indian Self-Determination Act, 209; of Indians of All Tribes, 183–84; and Indigenous governance, 25–26; in Jacksonian period, 111–12; and land grabs, 140–41, 173, 205–6; and narrative of dysfunction, 211; number of, 142; and reservations, 11; with Sioux Nation, 186–91; Trail of Broken, 185; UN investigation of, 205; after war of independence, 79–80
Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814), 100–101
Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809), 85
Treaty of Greenville (1795), 83
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), 123, 150
Treaty of Holston (1791), 89
Treaty of Hopewell (1785), 88
Treaty of Paris (1763), 70, 78
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), 42, 199
treaty rights, 10, 207–8
“tribal governments,” 171, 190
Triple Alliance, 20
Truman, Harry S., 173
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 8, 179
“Turner Thesis,” 179
turquoise in Aztec civilization, 20–21, 246n5
“20-Point Position Paper,” 185
Ulster-Scots, 51–54, 248n17
Unassigned Lands, 158
Union Army, Indigenous soldiers in, 135–36
Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA), 200–201
United Nations (UN): Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 8; Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 185, 204, 260n21; International Day of the World’s Indigenous Peoples, 198; Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 200, 260n21; proposals for Quincentennial year to, 197–98; Study on Treaties, 205; Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 260n21
United Provinces of Central America, 119–20
United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians (1980), 207
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 175, 204
“unlawful combatants,” 151, 222–23
urban industrial areas, relocation to, 174
US Army: and Apaches, 131–32; and Bozeman Trail, 145; in California, 130; during Civil War, 133–34; departments of, 133; destruction of Prophet’s Town by, 86; formation of, 80, 82; and gold rush, 129; and Indian Removal Act, 112; invasion of Mexico by, 123; and irregular warfare, 59, 220; and Modocs, 223; in Philippines, 166; and Sioux Nation, 188, 191; Special Operations Command of, 221–22; in war “to win the West,” 144, 149; Winchester rifle use by, 234
US Constitution: Great Law of Peace and, 26, 246n14; mention of Indigenous nations in, 79–80; veneration of, 50
US military bases, 225–26
UUA (Unitarian Universalist Association), 200–201
Vatican, and Quincentennial year, 197–98
VAWA (Violence Against Women Act, 1994), 214
Venne, Sharon, 203
Vietnam War era, 179–91; counterinsurgency in, 176–77, 179, 192–93; self-determination movement during, 181–86; Taos Pueblo in, 179–80; Wounded Knee in, 186–91
Villa, Francisco “Pancho,” 167
Vine, David, 225
violence: in irregular warfare, 57–60; against Miamis, 82; militarization and, 227; against Muskogee Nation, 91; in Ohio Country, 71, 73; settler colonialism and, 8; sexual, 214, 262n32. See also civilian attacks
Violence Against Women Act (VAWA, 1994), 214
Virginia Colony, 60–62
Virginia Tech killings, 195
Vizenor, Gerald, 197, 216–17
Volunteer Army of the Pacific, 138
Wahunsonacock, 60
Wakapuchasee (Cowkeeper), 101
Wampanoag people, 64
warfare: colonial, 57–60; and colonial expansion, 65–66; in French and Indian War, 67–71; against Haudenosaunee, 76–77; in New England colony, 62–64; in Ohio Country, 71–74; and scalping, 64–65; in Virginia colony, 60–62; in war of independence, 74–76; “wilderness,” 64. See also irregular warfare
War on Poverty, 182, 208–9
Warren, Dave, 176
Washington, George: and Cherokee Nation, 88; on “foreign entanglements,” 121; and Haudenosaunee, 77; as hero, 107; and Ohio Country, 81, 82; and US Army, 80; and US colonization, 93
Watie, Stand, 135
Wayne, “Mad” Anthony, 82–83, 86
WCU (Working Class Union), 166
wealth accumulation, 43–44
Weaver, Jace, 148
Wells, William, 83, 87
West, war to win, 144–46
westerns, 218
Weyapiersenwah (Blue Jacket), 81, 83, 85
White Earth Nation, 216–17
white supremacy, 36–39
Whitman, Walt, 117–18, 130–31, 253n2
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 130, 131
Wilcox, Michael V., 42
Wilder, Laura Ingalls, 252–53n19
wilderness, myth of pristine, 45–47
“wilderness warfare,” 64
Williams, Robert A., 3–4
Wilson, Richard, 186
Winchester, Sarah L., 234–35
witchcraft, 35–36
Witt, Shirley Hill, 181
Wolfe, Patrick, 2, 10
Wolford, Phillip, 194–95
&nb
sp; women: in Indigenous governance, 27; violence against, 214, 262n32
Working Class Union (WCU), 166
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), 93, 155–57, 162
Wounded Knee siege (1973), 186–91, 193
Wovoka, 153
Yankton Sioux Reservation, 164–65
Yoo, John C., 222–23
Yurok Nation, 169–70
BEACON PRESS
Boston, Massachusetts
www.beacon.org
Beacon Press books are published under the auspices of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations.
© 2014 by Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
18 17 16 15 14 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Beacon Press’s ReVisioning American History series consists of accessibly written books by notable scholars that reconstruct and reinterpret US history from diverse perspectives.
Text design and composition by Wilsted & Taylor Publishing Services
Excerpts from Simon J. Ortiz’s from Sand Creek: Rising in This Heart Which Is Our America (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2000) are reprinted here with permission.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne.
An indigenous peoples’ history of the United States / Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz.
pages cm — (ReVisioning American history)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8070-0040-3 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8070-0041-0 (ebook)
1. Indians of North America—Historiography. 2. Indians of North America—Colonization. 3. Indians, Treatment of— United States—History. 4. United States—Colonization. 5. United States— Race relations. 6. United States—Politics and government. I. Title.
E76.8.D86 2014
970.004’97—dc23 2013050262
An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States Page 35
