Gambling, and bookmaking in particular, has sometimes been called the “life blood” of organized crime. This is somewhat misleading. The ease of bookmaking made it commonplace among low-level wiseguys. However, since it was so easy to become a bookie, the market was fairly competitive and the profits limited.120 Mob soldiers tended to use bookmaking as everyday “work” income and to raise capital for more lucrative activities.121 Few wiseguys relied solely on bookmaking to make money.122
Prohibition reversed the fortunes of the Italian gangsters in New York City. But they were also bolstered by historical trends that were accelerating in the 1920s. The Italian gangsters were very much in the right place at the right time. The profits from bootlegging and other rackets, however, would soon lead to internal conflicts among the Mafia families. In our next chapter, we will look at a series of gang fights that have been shrouded in Mafia mythology.
He wanted something more terrible than money: power. And he had decided to carry out any action in order to obtain absolute power and to become the boss of bosses.
—Nicola Gentile, Vita di Capomafia (1963)
Al Capone was causing trouble for the Sicilians in New York. Capone had been on a meteoric rise since his teenage days as a wharf rat on the Brooklyn waterfront. Barely in his thirties, he was vying to become boss of Chicago during Prohibition. Except now Joseph Aiello, a Sicilian mafioso, was ominously calling Capone an “intruder” in Chicago. As the son of immigrant parents from Naples on mainland Italy, Capone was sneered at by many in the Sicilian Mafia who had thrown their support behind Aiello.1
The wild card was Joe Masseria, the new capo di capi or “boss of bosses” of the Mafia. Had Giuseppe “Joe the Boss” Masseria gotten different press, he might today be as well-known as Alphonse “Scarface” Capone or Charles “Lucky” Luciano. Joe Masseria built a sprawling Mafia syndicate, the largest in New York during Prohibition. He was less concerned with Sicilian lineage than with recruiting the toughest, shrewdest bootleggers he could find. Could Al Capone the Neapolitan gangster make a deal with Joe the Boss?
What followed next has been called the “Castellammarese War of 1930–1931,” a conflict which, it is said, created the modern Mafia. In his bestselling autobiography A Man of Honor, Joseph Bonanno, who participated on the winning side, paints a romanticized portrait of the “war.” Under Bonanno's conventional telling of the story, the noble Castellammarese clan of Brooklyn—the true “Men of Honor”—rally to defend themselves against the greedy, low-class Giuseppe “Joe the Boss” Masseria. This so-called Castellammarese War is the source of many myths about the Cosa Nostra. Even its title is misleading. This was hardly a “war”; it was not only about the Castellammarese clan of the Mafia; and it originated back in the 1920s.2
Another set of myths paints this as a generational conflict in which younger “Americanized” mobsters pushed aside the older Sicilian mafiosi. The conventional history suggests that Italian-American gangsters like Charles “Lucky” Luciano were impatient with the more tradition-minded, Sicily-born “Moustache Petes” for failing to modernize to the times in New York City. But as we will see, the historical facts do not square with this popular myth of “Americanization.”3
Rather, the conflicts were simply gang fights over money and power. Different mafiosi with self-interested motives were rebelling against overreaching by three successive boss of bosses: Salvatore D'Aquila, Joe Masseria, and Salvatore Maranzano. Let us call it simply the Mafia Rebellion of 1928–1931. This chapter tells a revisionist history of this conflict and explores what it actually meant for the New York Mafia. It dismantles the myths presented by the winners of the “war” and perpetuated by subsequent writers on the mob.
CAPO DI CAPI: SALVATORE “TOTÒ” D'AQUILA
As we saw in the previous chapter, Joe Masseria rose to power as the leader of bootleggers and professional criminals during Prohibition. The Masseria Family became the largest mob syndicate in Gotham. By 1928, Joe the Boss had one obstacle standing in his way.
The capo di capi of the American Mafia between 1910 and 1928 was an extraordinarily secretive man by the name of Salvatore “Totò” D'Aquila. He spent the majority of his life in Palermo, Sicily, when that city was swarming with rival clans. Barely 5 feet, 2 inches tall, D'Aquila had a penchant for dressing well and speaking smoothly. Soon after disembarking, he became a confidence man in Manhattan, talking his marks out of their money. D'Aquila gradually established himself as a gang leader with a base of power in East Harlem.4
When Giuseppe Morello went to the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary for counterfeiting in 1910, Salvatore D'Aquila became capo di capi at the nadir of the Sicilian Mafia in the second decade of the twentieth century, only to see its fortunes reverse during Prohibition. Flush with cash, Totò D'Aquila moved his family to an elaborately furnished house across from the Bronx Zoo. By outward appearances, D'Aquila was a quiet family man with successful business ventures in real estate, olive oil, and cheese importing.5
Behind the scenes, it was a different story. According to Nicola Gentile, a kind of freelance consultant to mafiosi in the 1920s, D'Aquila significantly expanded the reach of the capo di capi. D'Aquila became “very authoritative,” enlisted a “secret service” of spies, and brought trumped-up charges against rivals. Other informants confirm that D'Aquila presided over trials of mafiosi who allegedly broke rules of the mob. With D'Aquila acting like a kind of judge, the trials were held before the “general assembly” of Mafia representatives from clans across America.6
6:20 P.M., OCTOBER 10, 1928, 13TH STREET & AVENUE A, LOWER EAST SIDE, MANHATTAN: THE DEATH OF SALVATORE D'AQUILA
In October 1928, the fifty-year-old D'Aquila and his wife were consulting a cardiologist on the Lower East Side. During the drive from the Bronx, Totò D'Aquila noticed something wrong with his sedan. After ushering his wife and children into the doctor's office, he went back outside and lifted the hood of the engine.
Three men came up to D'Aquila on the sidewalk. They engaged him in a conversation that turned into a heated argument. Suddenly, the trio pulled out guns and started blasting away. The autumn dusk was shattered by gunfire as nine bullets ripped through D'Aquila's heart, left lung, pancreas, and other vital organs. D'Aquila collapsed on the sidewalk drenched in blood as his killers escaped on foot.7
JOE THE BOSS…OF ALL BOSSES
The death of D'Aquila paved the way for Masseria to become the boss of bosses. He was the obvious replacement: his Masseria Family was by far the largest in Prohibition New York. So, in the winter of 1928, the general assembly of the Mafia elected Giuseppe “Joe the Boss” Masseria to be capo di capi. Previously, the boss of bosses title was more honorary and consultative. The boss of bosses was seen as a kind of wise mediator among the Mafia families. But under D'Aquila, more and more authority had built up in the position. Masseria intended to take advantage of this to expand his interests in New York and westward to mob enclaves in Detroit and elsewhere.
The timing of Masseria's accession later fueled suspicions that he was secretly behind D'Aquila's murder. To this day, it is not at all clear that D'Aquila was, in fact, killed by men sent by Masseria.8 But conflicts are sometimes launched on misinformation, and the underworld eventually came to believe that Masseria was behind it. “Masseria managed to kill Totò D'Aquila, becoming himself boss of the bosses,” summarized Nicola Gentile.9
For now though, Joe the Boss of Bosses stood astride the Cosa Nostra. From the winter of 1928 through early 1930, the Masseria Family sought to expand its interests across the United States and to generate more revenues from New York. The general assembly of the Mafia supported him.
Then, like D'Aquila before him, Masseria began to overreach. Masseria's one-time ally Nicola Gentile said Joe the Boss started “bullying” Mafia representatives; further, his top lieutenants did “not permit objections” and “would command with the force of terror.” Joe the Boss's real problems began when he started to meddle with other Mafia families.10
&nbs
p; NEW YORK'S OTHER MAFIA FAMILIES, 1929–1931
When Joe Masseria became boss of bosses, in addition to his Masseria Family, there were four other Mafia families in New York City. As a brief overview, they were as follows:
The second Mafia family was based in South Brooklyn, which as we saw was full of lucrative waterfront rackets (see chapter 1). This family was headed by Alfred Mineo, an ally of Joe Masseria. But this South Brooklyn waterfront family would really be defined by Mineo's successors as boss, Vincent Mangano and Albert Anastasia.11
The third was the Castellammarese clan of central Brooklyn, headed by Nicola “Cola” Schiro. These men haled from the port village of Castellammare del Gulfo (“Castle on the Sea of the Gulf”) on the northwestern coast of Sicily. This lawless village was thick with mafiosi known for their ferocity. The Castellammarese, who liked to boast that they were “Men of Honor,” were among the most insular and chauvinistic mafiosi in Sicily.12
The fourth was the Joseph Profaci Family, also based in Brooklyn. Joseph Profaci and his clan mostly came from a suburb outside Palermo, Sicily. With his relative Joseph Magliocco as his underboss, the Profaci Family held a mix of bootlegging interests, the numbers lottery, and some legitimate businesses. Profaci would later secretly ally himself with the Castellammarese clan.13
And fifth, but not least, there was the Gaetano Reina Family. The Reina Family had its base in central Bronx and East Harlem. Gaetano Reina took control over much of north New York City's wholesale ice business (a valuable business before refrigeration) by muscling out competitors and taking over routes. Reina's top lieutenants were Tom Gagliano and Tommy Lucchese, close partners who would be pivotal in the upheaval to come.14
The New York Mafia families would soon divide into different coalitions, for and against the boss of bosses Joe Masseria. To keep track of the New York families, and their cross-country alliances, table 3–1 serves as a handy reference guide for this chapter:
Table 3–1 The Fall of the “Boss of Bosses”: Boss of Bosses, Mafia Families, and Major Participants
Giuseppe “The Clutch Hand” Morello, Boss of Bosses, ?–1910:
Morello was the “boss of bosses” until 1910 when he was convicted for counterfeiting. Sent to Atlanta Federal Penitentiary until release in 1920, then joined Masseria Family.
Salvatore “Totò” D'Aquila, Boss of Bosses, 1910–1928:
D'Aquila was the highly secretive “boss of bosses” during most of Prohibition. He was murdered by unknown assailants in Lower Manhattan in 1928.
Giuseppe “Joe the Boss” Masseria, Boss of Bosses, 1928–1931:
Masseria rose from obscurity to become boss of bosses after the death of D'Aquila. He became embroiled in a series of gang fights and was assassinated in 1931 at Coney Island restaurant by a cabal organized by his lieutenant Charles “Lucky” Luciano. The pro- and anti-Masseria coalitions were as follows:
Pro-Masseria Family Coalition: Anti-Masseria Family Coalition:
Al Capone “Outfit” (Chicago) Joseph Aiello Family (Chicago)
Chester LaMare faction (Detroit) Gaspare Milazzo Family (Detroit)
Stephen Magaddino Family (Buffalo)
Joseph Pinzolo (Bronx/Harlem): Would-be successor boss to Reina Family Reina Family faction (Bronx/Harlem): Tom Gagliano and Tommy Lucchese
Alfred Mineo Family (South Brooklyn): Steve Ferrigno, lieutenant Joseph Profaci Family (central Brooklyn)
Joseph Masseria Family (Manhattan): Joe Masseria, boss of bosses 1928–31 Giuseppe Morello, Masseria consigliere Joseph Catania
1931 cabal in Masseria Family: Charles “Lucky” Luciano
Vito Genovese
Frank Livorsi
Joseph Stracci Castellammarese clan (central Brooklyn): Salvatore Maranzano, boss of bosses 1931 Joseph Bonanno, Maranzano lieutenant Nicola Schiro, ex-boss of Castellammarese Vito Bonventre
Castellammarese clan's hit team: Nick Capuzzi
Sebastiano “Buster” Domingo
Girolamo “Bobby Doyle” Santuccio
Joe Valachi
Salvatore Maranzano, Boss of Bosses, 1931:
Maranzano lead the Castellammarese clan in surprise attacks on Masseria. In 1931, five weeks after becoming “boss of bosses,” he was assassinated in his Park Avenue office by a Jewish hit team organized by Charles “Lucky” Luciano, Tom Gagliano, and Tommy Lucchese. Maranzano was the last “boss of bosses.” He was replaced by a power-sharing commission.
PROXY FIGHT IN CHICAGO: AL CAPONE VS. JOSEPH AIELLO
Enter Alphonse Capone. During the late 1920s, Al Capone's “Chicago Outfit” was battling Joseph Aiello's Family for bootlegging territory around the Windy City. Capone was the Brooklyn-born son of poor Neapolitan parents; Aiello was a Sicily-born “Man of Honor.” Given their ethnic backgrounds and prejudices, the Sicilian mafiosi might be expected to back Aiello. And most did.
Joseph Aiello's strongest allies were Gaspare Milazzo in Detroit and Steve Magaddino in Buffalo, both of whom were Castellammarese. They maintained cross-country links with the Castellammarese clan of Brooklyn. They sided first with their fellow villagers, and then with fellow Sicilians. Non-Sicilians like Capone were a distant third.15
By contrast, as we have seen, Joe Masseria did not care so much about Sicilian lineage. Although accounts differ as to who approached whom first, everyone agrees on the outcome: Joe Masseria and Al Capone forged an alliance. Capone would become part of the Mafia through the Masseria Family, if he eliminated Joseph Aiello. The alliance was out in the open.16
FEBRUARY 1930: THE REINA FAMILY REBELS
On the evening of Wednesday, February 26, 1930, boss Gaetano Reina was walking with his blonde mistress to his parked coupe in the Bronx when assassins with a sawed-off shotgun fired ten slugs into Reina's body. As with Salvatore D'Aquila's death in 1928, it is not clear whether Gaetano Reina was killed by the Masseria Family. Reina was involved in the wholesale ice racket, which was awash in violence as competitors fought to control routes. Reina seemed to be expecting an attack at any minute: the police found a loaded .32 caliber revolver in Reina's pocket and a rifle with one hundred extra shells in a secret compartment in his car.17
Nevertheless, Masseria's subsequent actions convinced some that he ordered the hit on Reina. According to Joseph Bonanno, Masseria endorsed Joseph Pinzolo, one of his alleged sycophants, as the replacement boss for the Reina Family. Tom Gagliano and Tommy Lucchese, the top lieutenants of Gaetano Reina, began plotting their revenge. They believed that Masseria was behind Reina'a death, and they were unhappy that Pinzolo was taking over as boss. Reina's murder was “why Tom Gagliano fought with all his might against Joe the Boss,” mob soldier Joe Valachi was told by the faction. The Gagliano/Lucchese faction was the first group in New York to start secretly conspiring against Joe Masseria.18
There are, however, reasons to doubt the Gagliano/Lucchese faction's story of why Joseph Pinzolo ascended to boss. Their faction numbered only about fifteen dissidents in the two-hundred-member Reina Family. Most seemed to have accepted Pinzolo. Gagliano and Lucchese may have simply been jealous that they were passed over for Pinzolo.19
MAY 1930: THE CASTELLAMMARESE CLAN REBELS
The other rebellion in New York City was among the Castellammarese clan in Brooklyn. The official “cause for war” for the Castellammarese clan was the murder of their fellow Castellammarese, Gaspare Milazzo, a boss of Detroit, Michigan. On May 31, 1930, assassins killed Gaspare Milazzo and his driver Sam Parrino in a fish market. This time, Giuseppe “Joe the Boss” Masseria's links to the assassins were close. Joe Masseria was supporting Milazzo's crosstown rival Chester LaMare, whose soldiers were identified by the police as the killers of Milazzo.20 Milazzo's murder helped trigger a chain reaction in New York.
A REVISIONIST HISTORY OF THE CASTELLAMMARESE WAR OF 1930–1931
Mob history really is written by the winners. The conventional history on the Castellammarese War of 1930–1931 and its leader Salvatore Maranzano has been driven by his protégé J
oseph Bonanno's autobiography A Man of Honor. In Bonanno's romanticized account, his “hero” Salvatore Maranzano rallies the Castellammarese clan—the true defenders of the Sicilian “Tradition”—against the bastardized gangster Joe Masseria. Bonanno's compelling story of an underworld band of brothers sold many books. Is his history accurate?21
I plan to offer a revisionist history of the “Castellammarese War” by balancing Bonanno's version with the perspectives of others as well as with additional facts. It strips away the romanticism for a more realistic portrait of the modern Mafia.
SALVATORE MARANZANO: MAN OF HONOR OR OPPORTUNISTIC DEMAGOGUE?
In May 1930, Maranzano was nominally just a forty-three-year-old soldier under his boss Nicola Schiro of the Castellammarese clan of Brooklyn. Back in Sicily, Maranzano had been the provincial capo of all the Castellammarese clans until he was forced out by the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini in the 1920s. In America, Maranzano became a successful bootlegger.22 A pompous man, Maranzano and his supporters made sure everyone knew he had once studied to be a priest, spoke Latin, and read histories of ancient Rome.23
Salvatore Maranzano was a political demagogue. Back in Sicily, he had been active in electoral politics, politicking alongside his endorsed candidates. Those who saw Maranzano hold forth remember emotional speeches full of reckless charges and inflammatory rhetoric. As a mob rival, he called Joe Masseria “the poisonous snake of our family,” and he said Al Capone was “staining the organization” of “the honorable society.” Even Bonanno admitted Maranzano may have “overstated Masseria's avarice” and “frightened us a little in order to make us bolder.”24
Maranzano further exploited ethnic identity, a tactic the Mafia would return to over the years. As the mob soldier Joe Valachi later testified before a Senate Committee, the Maranzano camp baldly asserted that “all the Castellammarese were sentenced to death,” though the soldiers “never found out the reason.” “He has condemned all of us,” Maranzano told the Castellammarese, referring to Joe Masseria. “He will only devour you in time.” Nicola Gentile similarly describes how Maranzano “began to inflame…the hearts of his Castellammarese townsman inciting them to vindicate Milazzo” and then goaded “the Palermitani inciting them to vindicate Totò D'Aquila.”25
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