61. Faragher, Daniel Boone, 121, 170–174, 251–254.
62. Cayton, “Meanings of Wars for Great Lakes,” 382.
Chapter 4
1. Kevin Bruyneel, The Third Space of Sovereignty: The Post-Colonial Politics of U.S.-Indigenous Relations (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 8.
2. Alan Taylor, Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 2006), 107; J. Edward Chamberlin, “Homeland and Frontier,” in David Maybury-Lewis, Theodore Macdonald, and Biorn Maybury-Lewis, eds., Manifest Destinies and Indigenous Peoples (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 194.
3. John C. Weaver, The Great Land Rush and the Making of the Modern World, 1650– 1900 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003), 159–160; Colin Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 293.
4. http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/commerce_clause; Frank Pommersheim, Broken Landscape: Indians, Indian Tribes, and the Constitution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 33–86; Cynthia Cumfer, “Local Origins of National Indian Policy: Cherokee and Tennessean Ideas about Sovereignty and Nationhood, 1790–1811,” Journal of the Early Republic 23 (Spring 2003), 21–46.
5. Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 113; Dorothy V. Jones, License for Empire: Colonialism by Treaty in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 186.
6. Banner, How Indians Lost Their Land, 112; Taylor, Divided Ground, 10.
7. Elizabeth Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–1782 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001), 260–261; Paul Grant-Costa and Elizabeth Mancke, “Anglo-Amerindian Commercial Relations,” in H. V. Bowen, Elizabeth Mancke, and John G. Reid, eds., Oceanic Empire: Britain’s Atlantic and Indian Ocean Worlds (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 372.
8. Text of the Northwest Ordinance online at: http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/revolution/nwest-ord.htm
9. Frazier D. McGlinchey, “ ‘A Superior Civilization’: Appropriation, Negotiation, and Interaction in the Northwest Territory, 1787–1795,” in Daniel P. Barr, ed., The Boundaries Between Us: Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006), 126–127.
10. Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, Discovering Indigenous Lands: The Doctrine of Discovery in the English Colonies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 26.
11. Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny: American Expansionism and the Empire of Right (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 33.
12. Robert M. Owens, “Jeffersonian Benevolence on the Ground: The Indian Land Cession Treaties of William Henry Harrison,” Journal of the Early Republic 22 (Autumn 2002), 405–435.
13. Anthony F.C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 1–20, viii.
14. Taylor, Divided Ground, 245.
15. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (London: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 416.
16. Ibid., 418; R. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720– 1830 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996), 104.
17. Stephen Aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 49–50.
18. Lisa Brooks, “Two Paths to Peace: Competing Visions of Native Space in the Old Northwest,” in Barr, ed., Boundaries Between Us, 92; Taylor, Divided Ground, 281–282.
19. Armstrong Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 137–149; Hurt, Ohio Frontier, 111–118.
20. Hurt, Ohio Frontier, 133.
21. Andrew R. L. Cayton, “The Meaning of the Wars for the Great Lakes,” in David C. Skaggs and Larry L. Nelson, eds., Sixty Years’ War for Great Lakes (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2001), 386.
22. White, Middle Ground, 458; Colin G. Calloway, The Shawnees and the War for America (New York: Penguin, 2007), 85–108.
23. “ ‘Mad Anthony’ Wayne’s Campaign against the Indians in Ohio, 1792–1794,” by H.L. Robb, Captain, Corps of Engineers, November 1921, Box 8, Order of Indian Wars (OWI) Collection, United States Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pa. Hereafter cited as Carlisle Barracks; Calloway, Shawnees and War for America, 95–105.
24. Calloway, Shawnees and War for America, 87, 105; see also John Sugden, Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2000).
25. Andrew R. L. Cayton, Frontier Indiana (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996), 157.
26. Stephen Warren, “The Ohio Shawnees’ Struggle against Removal, 1814–1830,” in R. David Edmunds, ed., Enduring Nations: Native Americans in the Midwest (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 72–93; Andrew R. L. Cayton, “ ‘Noble Actors’ upon ‘The Theatre of Honor’: Power and Civility in the Treaty of Greenville,” in Cayton and Fredrika Teute, eds., Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750–1830 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 235–269.
27. Cayton, Frontier Indiana, 199–200; White, Middle Ground, 489.
28. Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 126; Cayton, Frontier Indiana, 202.
29. R. David Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1983); R. David Edmunds, Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership (New York: Pearson-Longman, 2007); Gregory Evans Dowd, A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815 (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), xv, 33.
30. On Tecumseh see Edmunds, The Shawnee Prophet and John Sugden, Tecumseh: A Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1997); Cayton, Frontier Indiana, 218–219.
31. William Henry Harrison, “Official Report of the Campaign and Battle of Tippecanoe,” November 8, 1811, Box 11, OWI, Carlisle Barracks; Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 127; Calloway, Shawnees and War for America, 140.
32. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 126–128.
33. Ibid., 126; 203–233; Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 375.
34. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 210–217; Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 161.
35. Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 162.
36. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 409–440.
37. Steven Watt, The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790–1820 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 283.
38. David C. Skaggs, “The Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes, 1754–1814: An Overview,” in Skaggs and Nelson, eds., Sixty Years’ War for the Great Lakes, 17.
39. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 409–440.
40. The Treaty of Ghent can be accessed online at: http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/ghent.asp
41. Brian L. Dunnigan, “Fortress Detroit, 1701–1826,” in Skaggs and Nelson, eds., Sixty Years War for Great Lakes, 167–185.
42. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 10; Warren, “Ohio Shawnees’ Struggle against Removal.”
43. R. David Edmunds, “Forgotten Allies: The Loyal Shawnees and the War of 1812,” in Skaggs and Nelson, eds., Sixty Years War for Great Lakes, 337–351.
44. Warren, “Ohio Shawnees’ Struggle against Removal.”
45. Edmunds, “Forgotten Allies: Loyal Shawnees and the War of 1812,” 347; Warren, “Ohio Shawnees’ Struggle against Removal”; Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 194.
46. Dana D. Nelson, National Manhood: Capitalist
Citizenship and the Imagined Fraternity of White Men (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998) and Michael A. Morrison and James B. Stewart, eds., Race and the Early Republic: Racial Consciousness and Nation-Building in the Early Republic (Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield, 2002); David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London: Verso, 2007); Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).
47. See Chapter II.
48. Susan Sleeper-Smith, “Resistance to Removal: The ‘White Indian,’ Frances Slocum,” in Edmunds, ed., Enduring Nations, 109–123.
49. Warren, “The Ohio Shawnees’ Struggle against Removal”; James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Anglo World, 1783–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 226.
50. John W. Hall, Uncommon Defense: Indian Allies in the Black Hawk War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 244–245.
51. Patrick J. Jung, The Black Hawk War of 1832 (Norman, NE: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 172–174; Thomas B. Colbert, “The Hinge on Which All the Affairs of the Sauk and Fox Indians Turn: Keokuk and the United States Government,” in Edmunds, ed., Enduring Nations, 67.
52. R. David Edmunds, The Potawatomis, Keepers of the Fire (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978); Hall, Uncommon Defense, 236; Jung, The Black Hawk War, 185.
53. Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 197, 290.
54. John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 182.
55. Theda Perdue and Michael D. Green, The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears (New York: Penguin Books, 2007), 48.
56. Claudio Saunt, A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Nations, 1733–1816 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 69, 205–206, 272.
57. Andrew Burstein, The Passions of Andrew Jackson (New York: Vintage Books, 2003), 106.
58. Ibid., 16, 90.
59. David J. Weber, Barbaros: Spaniards and the Savages in the Age of Enlightenment (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 215–217.
60. James G. Cusick, The Other War of 1812: The Patriot War and the American Invasion of Spanish East Florida (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2003), 8, 219, 278; see also J. C. A. Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands: James Madison and the Spanish-American Frontier, 1776–1821 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 52–133; John Missall and Mary Lou Missall, The Seminole Wars: America’s Longest Indian Conflict (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2004), 245; see also Andrew F. McMichael, Americans in Spanish West Florida, 1785–1810 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2008).
61. Saunt, New Order of Things, 288.
62. Scholars disagree on the body count. Claudio Saunt cites the figure of 40 deaths whereas John and Mary Lou Missall put the figure at more than 250. See Saunt, New Order of Things, 288; and, Missall and Missall, Seminole Wars, 30. Historical markers at the Negro Fort site use the figure of 300.
63. Missall and Missall, Seminole Wars, 30; David S. and Jeanne T. Heidler, Old Hickory’s War: Andrew Jackson and the Quest for Empire (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 154, 203.
64. An abundant literature exists on Jackson and the Indians. Two standard accounts are Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (New York: Viking, 2001) and Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993).
65. William E. Unrau, The Rise and Fall of Indian Country, 1825–1855 (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 61–62; Alfred A. Cave, “Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830,” The Historian 65 (Winter 2003), 1330–1353; Removal Act (1830) online: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/removal.htm
66. Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1982), 61–70.
67. Mary Hershberger, “Mobilizing Women, Anticipating Abolition: The Struggle against Indian Removal in the 1830s,” Journal of American History 86 (June 1999), 15–40; Natalie Joy, “Cherokee Slaveholders and Radical Abolitionists,” http://www.common-place.org/vol-10/no-04/joy.
68. Clara Sue Kidwell, “Choctaws and Missionaries in Mississippi Before 1830,” in Greg Obrien, ed., Pre-Removal Choctaw History: Exploring New Paths (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008), 200–220.
69. Mary Elizabeth Young, Redskins, Ruffleshirts and Rednecks: Indian Allotments in Alabama and Mississippi, 1830–1860 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961), 191; Perdue and Green, Cherokee Nation and Trail of Tears, 63.
70. Dippie, The Vanishing American, 61–70.
71. Donna L. Akers, Living in the Land of Death: The Choctaw Nation, 1830–1860 (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2004), 20, James T. Caron, “Native Americans, the Market Revolution, and Cultural Change: The Choctaw Cattle Economy, 1690–1830,” in O’Brien, ed., Pre-Removal Choctaw History, 183–199.
72. Akers, Living in the Land of Death, 88–89.
73. Remini, Jackson and his Indian Wars, 243–253.
74. Michael D. Green, The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), 141–186.
75. Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 194.
76. The two Supreme Court decisions can be read online at http://supreme.justia.com/us/30/1/case.html; and http://supreme.justia.com/us/31/515/case.html see also Pommersheim, Broken Landscape: Indians and the Constitution, 87–124; and “Settler Colonialism,” South Atlantic Quarterly 107 4 (special edition, Fall 2008), 839–854.
77. Banner, How Indians Lost Their Land, 221.
78. “Movement of the Cherokee Indians, 1838,” Box 2, Smith-Kirby-Webster-Black-Danner Family Papers, Box 2, Carlisle Barracks; Green and Perdue, Cherokee Nation and Trail of Tears; Remini, Jackson and Indian Wars, 268–270.
79. William Loren Katz, Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage (New York: Atheneum, 1986), 50–69; Missall and Missall, Seminole Wars, 103.
80. Missall and Missall, Seminole Wars, 178; Remini, Jackson and Indian Wars, 276.
81. Missall and Missall, The Seminole Wars, 196, 203.
82. Dippie, Vanishing American, xii, 12.
83. Susan Schekel, The Insistence of the Indian: Race and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century American Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 99–126.
84. John Hausdoerffer, Catlin’s Lament: Indians, Manifest Destiny, and the Ethics of Nature (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2009); Dippie, Vanishing American, 26.
Chapter 5
1. The reference is to President Abraham Lincoln’s annual message to the Congress delivered on December 1, 1862. http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/congress.htm.
2. David J. Weber, Barbaros: Spaniards and the Savages in the Age of Enlightenment (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 94–95; 148, 77–78.
3. Brian DeLay, War of a Thousand Deserts: Indian Raids and the U.S.-Mexican War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 12–14; Richard V. Francaviglia and Douglas W. Richmond, Dueling Eagles: Reinterpreting the U.S.-Mexican War, 1846–1848 (Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University Press, 2000), 146.
4. Weber, Barbaros, 269; DeLay, War of a Thousand Deserts; Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 148.
5. DeLay, War of Thousand Deserts, 118, xv; Pekka Håmålåinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).
6. Gary Clayton Anderson, The Indian Southwest, 1580–1830: Ethnogenesis and Reinvention (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 204–250; on women, gender, and diplomacy, see Juliana Barr, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).
7. Håmålåinen, Comanche Empire.
8. Anderson, The Indian Southwest, 204–250; Håmålåinen, Comanche Empire.
9. Anderson, The Indian Southwest, 258–259; Jacki Thompson Rand, Kiowa Humanity and the Invasion of the State (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 26–27.
10. DeLay, War of a Thousand Deserts, xiii, 114–138.
11. Håmålåinen, Comanche Empire, 2, 142; see also Brian DeLay, “The Wider World of the Handsome Man: Southern Plains Indians Invade Mexico, 1830–1848,” Journal of the Early Republic 27 (Spring 2007), 83–113.
12. Jesus f. de la Teja, “Discovering the Tejano Community in ‘Early’ Texas,” Journal of the Early Republic 18 (Spring 1998), 73–98.
13. Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815– 1848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 658–671.
14. Gary C. Anderson, The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820–1875 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005), 7–8.
15. Ibid., 41, 57, 80; on the failure of Houston’s efforts to negotiate, 153–171.
16. Ibid., 360.
17. See, for example, S. C. Gwynne’s bestseller Empire of the Summer Moon: Quanah Parker and the Rise and Fall of the Comanches (New York: Scribner, 2010); which was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize yet leans heavily on hoary and unverified accounts of Indian atrocity while failing to consult authoritative, peer-reviewed scholarship, award-winning in its own right, such as Anderson’s Conquest of Texas or Peka Håmålåinen, The Comanche Empire.
18. Anderson, Conquest of Texas, 128–129.
19. Ibid., 160, 57, 80, 174, 319.
20. Ibid., 182–183.
21. David Clary, Eagles and Empire: The United States, Mexico, and the Struggle for a Continent (New York: Bantam Dell, 2009), 53.
22. DeLay, War of a Thousand Deserts, 248.
23. William Earl Weeks, The New Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations (Vol. I): Dimensions of the Early American Empire, 1754–1865 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 122; see also Anders Stephanson, Manifest Destiny and the Empire of Right (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995).
American Settler Colonialism: A History Page 39
