In the past, sludge was dumped in landfills. Today, many options are exercised. According to Tonda F. Rush, president and CEO of the National Newspaper Association, some mills burn the waste, while others sell it to be converted to organic fertilizer.
Recycled newsprint can feel differently to the touch than virgin stock. Lustig explains that paper cannot be recycled infinitely. Three or four times is a maximum:
Eventually, the fibers lose their ability to bind together, resulting in a paper that is structurally weak and unable to withstand the tensile pressures put to it on high-speed web presses.
Submitted by Ted Winston of Burbank, California. Thanks also to Meadow D’Arcy of Oakland, California.
Why Do Lizards Sleep with One Eye Open?
We imagine that Sarah Robertson, who lives in Nevada, has had ample opportunity to observe lizards sleeping, but our experts beg to differ with this Imponderable’s premise. Professor Joseph C. Mitchell, secretary of the Herpetologists League, says that it is rare for lizards to sleep with one eye closed. Norman J. Scott, Jr., zoologist in lizard country (New Mexico), says, “Every lizard that I caught sleeping had both eyes closed. They may partially or totally open one or both eyes if they are disturbed.”
So is our questioner hallucinating? Not necessarily. Chameleons are distinguished not only by their ability to change color but by their knack for moving each eye independently. John E. Simmons, of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, thinks that a shifty chameleon might have been trying to snare our Sarah:
It is not uncommon for a chameleon to sit motionless for long periods of time with one eye closed and one open, but it is not sleeping when it does this, it is awake and watching for prey items and predators with the open eye.
Simmons also mentions that some lizards have a transparent membrane that closes over the eye to protect it. And according to Richard Landesman, a zoologist at the University of Vermont, some lizards have a pattern of scales and coloration on their eyelids that might fool predators into thinking their eyelids are closed. These lizards might also look like they have one eye closed but are actually capable of seeing with both eyes. Illusions that trick us into thinking they have an eye closed might be used to fool their potential predators as well.
Submitted by Sarah Robertson of Sun Valley, Nevada.
If Grapes Are Both Green and Purple, Why Are Grape Jellies Always Purple?
If you read our first book of Imponderables (entitled, appropriately enough, Imponderables), you know how they make white wine out of black grapes. But for those of you who aren’t yet fully literate, we’ll reiterate: The juice from grapes of any color is a wan, whitish or yellowish hue. White wine is the color of that juice. Red wine combines the juice of the grape along with its skin. The color of the skin, not the juice, gives red wine its characteristic shade.
If you want to prove this premise, go out to your local supermarket or produce store and crush a few red and green grapes into empty containers—you’ll be surprised at how similar the colors of the liquids are. But throw grapes with skin into a blender or food processor, and you’ll have a very different color. One more suggestion: We recommend using seedless grapes.
Ever since 1918, when Welch’s started marketing grapelade, a precursor of the jellies soon to follow, the company used Concord grapes exclusively. By the time the company pioneered the mass distribution of jelly, it was already established in the juice business: Welch’s introduced grape juice in 1869, using the same dark Concord grapes. James Weidman III, vice-president of corporate communications for Welch’s, told us that the characteristic color of Welch’s grape jelly comes from the purple skin of the Concord grape, although the pulp of the Concord grape is white: “Because the basic ingredient in grape jelly is juice, the jelly is therefore purple.”
Megan Haugood, account manager at the California Table Grape Commission, told us that consumers now expect and demand the purple color established by Welch’s and would be uncomfortable with the appearance of a green grape jelly, even assuming a jelly could be made from green grapes that tasted as good. So all of Welch’s competitors adopted the same bright color for their grape jellies.
We asked Sandy Davenport, of the International Jelly and Preserve Association, whether her organization was aware of any green jellies in the marketplace. She started looking through her six-hundred-page directory, finding marketers of rhubarb jelly, partridge berry jelly, California plum jelly, and, of course, kiwifruit jelly. But no green grape jellies in sight. Most of the experts we consulted felt that green grapes are considerably blander in taste and would be unlikely to gain a foothold in the marketplace, even if youngsters could tolerate the idea of eating peanut butter and green jelly sandwiches.
Submitted by Jeff Thomsen of Naperville, Illinois.
Why Didn’t Fire Trucks Have Roofs Until Long After Cars and Trucks Had Roofs?
The first fire wagons in America were not motorized. They weren’t even horse-drawn. They were drawn by humans. Bruce Hisley, instructor at the National Fire Academy, told Imponderables that verifiable records of human-drawn fire engines show that they were in use as late as 1840. Horse-drawn open carriages were then the rule until motorized coaches were introduced in 1912.
By today’s standards, the early motorized fire trucks were far from state of the art. Not only were they topless, but they lacked windshields. Early designers didn’t realize the environmental impact of greater speeds upon fire crews, especially the driver. Although drivers soon put on goggles to help fight off the wind, rain, and snow to which they were exposed, the addition of windshields was a major advance for safety and driver comfort. So was another afterthought: doors on the sides of the cab.
Of course, it was the rule for the crew to stand on the outside of the truck during runs, exposing them to further unsafe conditions. Although roofs and closed cabs were introduced in the late 1920s or early 1930s, many firefighters continued to ride on the outside. As David Cerull, of the Fire Collectors Club, puts it: “When it comes to change in the fire service, the attitude that prevails is: ‘If we did not have them before, why should we have them now?’”
Fire departments did have some legitimate arguments against the covered cabs. Martin F. Henry, assistant vice-president of the National Fire Protection Association, told Imponderables that many fire departments, upon receiving covers for their fire trucks, promptly removed them. Why?
The thinking at the time was that the open cab provided an ability to see the fire building in an unrestricted fashion. Ladder companies, it was thought, would have a better opportunity to know where to place the aerial if they could see the building from the cab.
This objection was particularly strong in urban areas. Cerull points out that when approaching a fire in a highrise, the company could see the upper floors and roofs more easily. Eventually, the “sun roof” solved this problem.
The other complaint about early roofs was that the roofs themselves were fire hazards. Arthur Douglas, of fire equipment manufacturer Lowell Corporation, told us that many of the roofs were protected by weatherproofing, sometimes wood covered with a treated fabric. “Both of these materials were, of course, flammable, thus a high risk on a firefighting unit.” The metal roof obviously solved this argument against the closed cab.
So why didn’t the changeover occur more quickly? One reason, besides sure inertia, opines Henry, is that the life span of fire trucks is twenty to twenty-five years. Many departments were loath to abandon functioning apparatus. And although many firefighters enjoyed riding the tail-board, statistics accumulated, to no one’s surprise, proving that the outside of a truck moving at forty miles per hour wasn’t the best place to be during an accident.
But perhaps the precipitating factor in closing cabs is a sadder commentary on our culture than a disregard for safety, as Martin Henry explains:
Open cabs came to an abrupt halt in major metropolitan areas when it became fashionable to hurl objects at firefighters. All riding p
ositions were quickly enclosed.
Submitted by Scott Douglas Burke of Charlestown, Maryland.
Why Are There So Few Brazil Nuts in Mixed Nuts Assortments?
We contacted a slew of nut authorities and quickly realized that the ratio of various nuts in an assortment is serious business. The industry rule of thumb is that there is never less than 2 percent by weight of any type of nut in a mixed-nut assortment, but how do they arrive at the proper proportion? Focus groups, of course. Nut marketers attract roving hordes off the street, sit them down at a table, and find out what people’s deepest fears, needs, and fantasies about mixed nut assortments truly are.
And here’s why Brazil nuts get the shaft:
1. People don’t like them that much. If Brazil nuts were popular, you’d see the big nut companies, like Planters, selling whole jars of Brazil nuts. They don’t because an insufficient number of consumers would buy them. As one nut expert so accurately put it: “Generally, the last nut remaining in the nut bowl after favorites have been picked by consumers in the Brazil nut.” A representative of Planters Peanuts who preferred to remain anonymous assured us that cashews, pecans, and almonds are all preferred over Brazil nuts.
2. People don’t like the color of Brazil nuts. Walter Payne, of Blue Diamond, wrote Imponderables that it is difficult and quite expensive to take the skin off (i.e., blanch) Brazil nuts. Consumers prefer lighter colored nuts, which limits the distribution ratio of the Brazil nuts. Payne notes that in assortments offering blanched Brazil nuts, “the Brazil population in the mix is much higher.”
3. Brazil nuts are too big. If you put more of them in an assortment, they would physically dominate the mix.
4. Brazil nuts are expensive. We contacted the Peanut Factory, a Rome, Georgia, marketer of many mixed assortments. The folks at the Factory assured us that when determining a ratio of nuts in a mix, there is always a balance between popularity and price. Brazil nuts, imported from Brazil, Peru, or Bolivia, are just too expensive to justify increasing their proportion. If consumers wanted more Brazil nuts, they would complain. But no one we contacted showed the slightest indication that they’ve ever been confronted with angry consumers demanding more Brazil nuts.
We don’t know why you asked this question, Michele, but we hope you are satisfied. If you aren’t, I’m sure you derive pleasure from being invited to many parties, where your main role is to eat all the Brazil nuts left by more conventional partygoers.
Submitted by Michele Baerri of Leonie, New Jersey.
Stop the Presses. Days before we submitted this manuscript, we heard from Kimberly J. Cutchins, president of the National Peanut Council:
As the National Peanut Council, we do not represent other nuts. However, I did call one of our members, Planters, to get a response to this question. A pound of peanuts costs between 35 cents and 70 cents, depending on the size and variety. Brazil nuts cost approximately $1.25 per pound. Although the difference in price of the nuts is significant, it is not the reason there are so few Brazil nuts in mixed nut assortments. According to Planters, it is consumer preference that determines the ratio of nuts.
So far, Cutchins merely confirms our research. But then she dropped the bombshell:
Just recently, Planters has increased the number of Brazil nuts in their assortment to reflect consumer demand.
There you are, Michele. An unprecedented boomlet for Brazil nuts has changed the equation. Can filberts be far behind?
Why Do American Doors Have Round Door Knobs, While Many Other Countries Use Handles?
Our correspondents wonder why the knob is virtually ubiquitous when it is much more inconvenient than the handle. Anyone who has ever arrived home carrying three sacks of groceries, with an eight-year-old child and a dog in tow, quickly grasps the notion that it would be far easier to pull down a lever with a loose elbow than to grasp a knob tightly and twist.
All of the hardware sources we contacted indicated that the primary reason knobs are more popular in the United States is simply because customers prefer their looks. Richard Hudnut, product standards coordinator for the Builders Hardware Manufacturers Association, told us that knobs are also easier to manufacture and thus usually cheaper for the consumer.
Joe Lesniak, technical director of the Door and Hardware Institute, says that handles (or “levers,” as they are known in the trade) are making a comeback, for at least two reasons. Just as tastes in hemlines vary for no discernible reason, so do preferences for door finishings. As this book is being written, short skirts and door handles are in vogue. But more importantly, the soon to be enforced Americans with Disabilities Act and the Fair Housing Act are going to change Americans’ knob habit indefinitely. This legislation mandates that doors in buildings other than one-and two-family dwellings must contain handles and pulls that are easy to activate with one hand and that don’t need to be tightly held.
Submitted by Dainis Bisenieks of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Thanks also to George Marchelos of 291st BSB.
Why Do Starving Children Have Bloated Stomachs?
How often have we seen pictures of young children, near death from starvation, with emaciated faces and bloated stomachs? The image is haunting and yet ironic: Why do these children, desperately in need of food, have such protruding abdomens?
Bloated abdomens are a symptom of protein calorie malnutrition (PCM). Many of these youths are starving from a generally inadequate calorie consumption and concomitant insufficient protein. But others are suffering from “kwashiorkor,” a condition in which children who consume a proper amount of calories are not eating enough protein. Kwashiorkor is most common among many of the rice-based cultures in the third world, where traditional sources of protein (meat, fish, legumes) are uncommon or too costly for the average citizen.
Insufficient protein consumption can lead to severe problems—it produces the lack of energy reflected in the passive, affectless expression of these PCM children. PCM can affect every organ in the body, but it is particularly devastating to the pancreas, liver, blood, and lymphatic system.
A healthy person’s blood vessels leak a little fluid, which collects outside of the vessels. Ordinarily, the lymphatic vessels remove this liquid. But when the lymphatic system malfunctions, as it does in PCM children, the fluid builds up in the skin, causing a condition known as edema.
In these children, a particular type of fluid accumulation, ascites (the fluid buildup in the abdominal cavity), accounts for much of the bloated stomach. A little fluid in the abdominal cavity is a desirable condition, because the fluid helps cushion organs. Ascites in isolation may not be dangerous, but they are often a symptom of liver damage. Don Schwartz, a pediatrician at Philadelphia’s Children Hospital, told Imponderables that membranes often weaken during protein calorie malnutrition, which only adds to the leakage of body fluids into the abdominal cavity.
Dysfunctional livers often swell. The liver is one of the largest organs in the body and usually constitutes 2 to 3 percent of one’s entire body weight. According to Dr. Schwartz, an enlarged liver can contribute to a swollen belly.
Of course, not only small children are subject to this condition. Bloated stomachs are common in any individuals suffering malnutrition, and are most often seen in Western countries among sick people who have experienced sudden weight loss. Hospitals are alert to the problem of PCM among adults—one estimate concluded that about 25 percent of hospitalized adults in the United States have some form of PCM.
Submitted by Candace Adler of La Junta, Colorado.
Why Do Most Buses and Trucks Keep Their Engines Idling Rather Than Shutting Them Off While Waiting for Passengers or Cargo?
During the first big gas crisis, public service announcements on radio and television urged us not to leave engines idling unnecessarily. Why don’t buses and trucks live by the standards we mundane auto drivers do?
The key to the answer is the fuel used in the bus or truck. If you observe carefully, you’ll notice that the “idlers” are diesel-
powered vehicles. We always thought that bus drivers were leaving engines idle out of laziness, but Morris Adams, of Thomas Built Buses, set us straight:
These diesel-powered engines require a certain level of heat to operate most efficiently. It is cheaper to leave them running than cold starting. Diesel fuel will last almost twice as long as gasoline when used under the same atmospheric conditions.
Idling can also be a safety issue. Most buses, and many big trucks, operate with air brakes. Air brakes can’t operate effectively until sufficient air pressure has built up, a process that can take about ten minutes.
And one issue pertains specifically to school or public buses—comfort. Karen E. Finkel, executive director of the National School Transportation Association, explains:
[Bus riders] want and expect comfort—air conditioning in the summer and heat in the winter. Buses have a massive amount of air space that takes a longer period of time to heat or cool than an individual’s automobile.
How Does Aspirin Find a Headache? Page 14
