2. ‘Ata-Malik Juvainî, The History of the World-Conqueror, trans. John A. Boyle (Cambridge, MA,: Harvard University Press, 1958), 1: 21–22.
3. The Secret History of the Mongols, trans. Igor de Rachewiltz (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2004), 1: 10, 287.
4. Rashîd ad-Dîn, Jâmi’ at-Tavârîkh, ed. Muhammad Rowshan and Mustafâ Mûsavî (Tehran: Nashr-i Alburz, 1373/1994), 1: 251–252.
5. The Secret History, trans. de Rachewiltz, 1: 13.
6. The Secret History, trans. de Rachewiltz, 1: 4.
7. The Secret History, trans. de Rachewiltz, 1: 19–20.
8. Rashîd ad-Dîn, Jâmi’ at-Tavârîkh, ed. Rowshan and Mûsavî, 1: 361–4.
9. Juvainî, History, trans. Boyle, 1:107, 122.
10. Rashîd al-Dîn, The Successors of Genghis Khan, trans. John A. Boyle (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), 17–18.
11. Peter Jackson, “From Ulus to Khanate” in Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David Morgan, eds., The Mongol Empire and its Legacy (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 12–38.
12. S. A. M. Adshead, Central Asia in World History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), 61.
13. Kirakos Gandzaketsi, Istoriia Armenii, trans. L. A. Khanlarian (Moscow: Nauka, 1976), 156.
14. Minhâj al-Dîn al-Juzjânî, Tabaqât-i Nâsirî, ed. ‘Abd al-Hayy Habîbî (Tehran: Dunyâ-yi Kitâb, 1363/1984), 2: 197–198.
15. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk—Ilkhânid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 1.
16. See Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo: The Complete Yule-Cordier Edition (New York: Dover, 1993), 2: 463–65, where she is called by her Turkic name “Aijaruc” (Ay Yaruq, Bright Moon). Michal Biran, Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia (Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1997), 1–2, 19–67.
17. Peter Jackson, “The Mongols and the Faith of the Conquered” in Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran, eds., Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 245–278.
18. Rashid al-Din, Successors, trans. Boyle, 37.
19. Thomas T. Allsen, Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 63–89, 177–179.
20. Rashîd ad-Dîn, Jâmi’ at-Tavârîkh, ed. Rowshan and Mûsavî, 2: 1137–1138.
21. Paul D. Buell, “Mongol Empire and Turkicization: The Evidence of Food and Foodways” in Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan, eds., The Mongol Empire and its Legacy (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 200–223.
22. Peter B. Golden, ed., The King’s Dictionary: The Rasûld Hexaglot (Leiden-Boston-Köln, 2000), 112, 227.
23. William of Rubruck, The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, trans. Peter Jackson, ed. Peter Jackson and David Morgan, Hakluyt Society, second series, vol. 173 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1990), esp. 76–77, 183, 209–210.
24. Thomas T. Allsen, “Command Performances: Entertainers in the Mongolian Empire,” Russian Histoire-Histoire Russe, 28, no. 1–4 (Winter 2001): 41–45.
25. Ibid., 38–41.
26. Jerry H. Bentley, “Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History,” American Historical Review, 101, no. 3 (June 1996): 766–767.
CHAPTER 7
1. Al-’Umarî, Das mongolische Weltreich. Al-’Umarî’s Darstellung der mongolis-chen Reiche in seinem Werk Masâlik al-absâr fî mamalik al-amsar, ed. with German paraphrase by Klaus Lech, Asiatische Forschungen, Bd. 22 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1968), Arabic text, p. 73.
2. Jean-Paul Roux, La religion des Turcs et des Mongols (Paris: Payot, 1984), 137–141.
3. Devin DeWeese, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 1994), 541–543.
4. David M. Abramson and Elyor E. Karimov, “Sacred Sites, Profane Ideologies: Religious Pilgrimage and the Uzbek State” in Jeff Sahadeo and Russell Zanca, eds., Everyday Life in Central Asia Past and Present (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007),-338.
5. Toktobiubiu Dzh. Baialieva, Doislamskie verovaniia i ikh perezhitki u kirgizov (Frunze, Kyrgyz SSR: Ilim, 1972), 140–142, 149–151.
6. Don Ruiz Gonzales de Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane 1403–1406, trans. Guy Le Strange (London: Routledge, 1928, repr. Frankfurt am-Main, 1994), pp. 137, 212.
7. Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, trans. Le Strange, 210.
8. Ibid., 210–211.
9. Ibid., 286.
10. The oft-repeated story of the Kök Tash’s association with Temür appears to be an eighteenth-century creation, fully accepted by nineteenth-century visitors to the site. None of the contemporary accounts note it, see Ron Sela, “The ‘Heavenly Stone’ (Kök Tash) of Samarqand: A Rebels’ Narrative Transformed” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17/1 (2007), 21–32.
11. Colin Thubron, Shadow of the Silk Road (New York: Harper Collins, 2007), 199.
12. Tilman Nagel, Timur der Eroberer und die islamische Welt des späten Mittelalters (Munich: Verlag C.H. Beck, 1993), 337–339.
13. Filiz Çağman, “Glimpses into the Fourteenth-Century Turkic World of Central Asia: The Paintings of Muhammad Siyah Qalam” in David J. Roxburgh, ed., Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600 (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2005), 148–190. Examples of Timurid art can be found in David J. Roxburgh, “The Timurid and Turkmen Dynasties of Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia c. 1370–1506” in Roxburgh ed., Turks, 192–260.
14. See Allen J. Frank, Islamic Historiography and ‘Bulghar’ Identity among the Tatars and Bashkirs of Russia (Leiden: Brill, 1998).
15. S. K. Ibragimov et al., eds., Materialy po istorii kazakhskikh khanstv XV-XVIII vekov (Alma-Ata: Nauka, 1969), 169.
16. Qazaq was later borrowed into Russian (kazak) and Ukrainian (kozak) to denote a free, largely Slavic population on the frontiers of the steppe: the Cossacks.
17. Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia being the Tarikh-i Rashidi, ed. N. Elias, trans. E. Dennison Ross (London, 1895; repr. London: Curzon Press, 1972), 82.
18. Ibid., 14–15, 58.
19. Johan Elverskog, ed. and trans., The Jewel Translucent Sutra. Altan Khan and the Mongols in the Sixteenth Century (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 8–9, 48–52, 71.
20. Kenneth Chase, Firearms: A Global History to 1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 52–53, 55, 61; Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), 58–59.
CHAPTER 8
1. Chase, Firearms, 124, 203.
2. Dughlat, Tarikh-i Rashîdî, ed. Elias, trans. Ross, 272–273.
3. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor, ed. and trans. Wheeler M. Thackston (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 256.
4. Baburnama, ed. and trans. Thackston, 46.
5. Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire 1500–1800 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2002), 21–22.
6. Vadim V. Trepavlov, Istoriia nogaiskoi ordy [History of the Noghai Horde] (Moscow: Vostochnaia Literatura, 2001), 372–375.
7. She is depicted as a blood-drinking old woman dressed in red. See Ruth I. Meserve, “The Red Witch” in The Role of Women in the Altaic World. Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th Meeting, Walberberg, 26–31 August 2001, ed. Veronika Veit, Asiatische Forschungen, Bd. 152 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007), 131–141.
8. From Chinese Huang Taizi, “Respected Son,” Mark C. Elliot, The Manchu Way (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 63, 396–397n71.
9. Giovanni Stary, “The Meaning of the Word ‘Manchu.’ A New Solution to an Old Problem,” Central Asiatic Journal 34, no.1–2 (1990), 109–119. Stary derives it from Manchu man, “strong, powerful, great” combined with the suffix -ju, which expresses a wished-for realization: “May you be strong, powerful, great.”
10. For the text of the treaty and facsimiles of the Russian and Manchu texts, see Basil Dmytryshyn et al. eds. and trans., Russia’s Conquest of Siberia: A Do
cumentary Record 1558–1700 (Portland, OR: Western Imprints, The Press of the Oregon Historical Society, 1985), 497–501.
11. Fred. W. Bergholz, The Partition of the Steppe:. The Struggle of the Russians, Manchus and the Zunghar Mongols for Empire in Central Asia, 1619–1758 (New York: Peter Lang, 1993), 270–277, 335–340; Perdue, China Marches West, 161–173.
12. Arthur Waldron, The Great Wall of China: From History to Myth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 3–4, 122–164.
13. Lubsan Danzan (Lubsangdanjin), Altan Tobchi [The Golden Summary], trans. N. P. Shastina (Moscow: Nauka, 1973), 290; Johan Elverskog, ed. and trans. The Jewel Translucent Sutra (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 129–130.
14. Tsongkhapa was considered the first Dalai Lama. The interview was conducted through interpreters, and some misunderstandings of terminology and protocol may have occurred.
15. Lubsan Danzan, Altan Tobchi, 291–292.
16. She had been one of the wives of Altan Khan’s father. In keeping with old steppe practice, the heir often married his father’s wife (other than one’s mother) or wives and those of deceased brothers as well See C. R. Bawden, The Modern History of Mongolia (New York: Frederick Praeger, 1968), 28–29.
17. Bawden, The Modern History of Mongolia, 27–28, citing the account of Xiao Daheng, written in 1594, a generation after the conversion.
18. Elverskog, ed. and trans., The Jewel Translucent Stra, 35–40.
19. The various views on this much-debated subject are found in Scott C. Levi, Indian and Central Asia: Commerce and Culture, 1500–1800 (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007).
20. A. I. Levshin, Opisanie kirgiz-kazatskikh ili kirgiz-kaisatskikh ord i stepei (St. Petersburg, 1832, repr. Almaty: Sanat, 1996), 313.
21. For the debate on the nature of Kazakh religious practices, see Bruce G. Privratsky, Muslim Turkistan (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2001), 7–29 and the cautionary remarks of Devin De Weese, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State Press 1994), 65–6, with regard to the alleged “superficiality” of Kyrgyz Islam.
22. Questions regarding the long-established popular etymology of this name are raised by Christopher I. Beckwith, “A Note on the Name and Identity of the Junghars,” Mongolian Studies 29 (2007): 41–45.
23. Valentin A. Riasanovsky, The Fundamental Principles of Mongol Law (Tientsin, 1937: repr. in Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 43, The Hague: Mouton, 1965), 92–100.
24. Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West. The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press), 140.
25. Perdue, China Marches West, 304–306; Millward, Eurasian Crossroads, 89–90.
26. From the Da Qing Shengzu Ren Huangdi Shilu [Decree of Emperor Kangxi of August 4, 1690] in B. P. Gurevich and G. F. Kim, eds., Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia v Tsentral’noi Azii. XVII-XVIII vv. Dokumenty i materialy (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), 1:195–196.
27. Dughlat, Tarikh-i Rashîdî, ed. Elias, trans. Ross, 125, 148.
28. Buri A. Akhmedov, ed. and trans., Makhmud ibn Vali, More tain otnositel’no doblestei blagorodnykh [a translation of Mahmûd ibn Walî, Bahr al-Asrâr fî Manâqib al-Akhyâr] (Tashkent: Fan, 1977), 41.
CHAPTER 9
1. Captain John Moubray Trotter, compiler, “Central Asia”, Section II, Part IV. A Contribution towards the Better Knowledge of the Topography, Ethnography, Resources and History of the Khanat of Bokhara (Calcutta: Foreign Department Press, 1873), 3–6.
2. Lieutenant Alexander Burnes, Travels into Bukhara (London: John Murray, 1834), 1: 267–270.
3. Frederick G. Burnaby, A Ride To Khiva (London: Cassell Petter & Galpin, 1876, repr. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 307, 309–310.
4. Eugene Schuyler, Turkestan: Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkestan, Khokand, Bukhara and Kuldja (London: Sampson Low, Marston Searle, and Rivington, 1876), 2: 6, 11.
5. Schuler, Turkestan, 1: 162.
6. Burnes, Travels, 1: 252.
7. Ibid., 1: 276.
8. Robert D. Crews, For Prophet and Tsar: Islam and Empire in Russia and Central Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 38.
9. Mîrzâ ‘Abdal ‘Azîm Sâmî, Ta’rîkh-i Salâtîn-i Manġitîya (Istoriia mangytskikh gosudarei), ed. and trans. L. M. Epifanova (Moscow: Vostochnaia Literatura, 1962), 119 (109b); and Jo-Ann Gross, “Historical Memory, Cultural Identity, and Change: Mirza ‘Abd al-’Azîz Sami’s Representation of the Russian Conquest of Bukhara” in Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzarini, eds., Russia’s Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 216.
10. Robert D. Crews, “Empire and the Confessional State: Islam and Religious Politics in Nineteenth-century Russia,” The American Historical Review 108, no.1 (February 2003), 50–52.
11. Chokan Ch. Valikhanov, “Ocherki Dzhungarii,” in his Sobranie Sochinenii, 5 vols. (Alma-Ata: Kazakhstaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia, 1984–1985) 3:327.
12. M.Kh. Abuseitova et al., Istoriia Kazakhstana i Tsentral’noi Azii (Almaty: Bilim, 2001), 409.
13. Edward Allworth, ed., Central Asia:. 130 Years of Russian Dominance, A Historical Overview, 3rd. ed. (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 98.
14. Jacob Landau and Barbara Kellner-Heinkele, Politics of Language in the Ex-Soviet Muslim States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 7.
15. Sergei Abashin, Natsionalizmy v Srednei Azii. V poiskakh identichnosti (Sankt-Peterburg: Aleteiia, 2007), 186–189.
16. Peter Fincke, “Competing Ideologies of Statehood and Governance in Central Asia: Turkic Dynasties in Transoxania and their Legacy” in David Sneath, ed., States of Mind: Power, Place, and the Subject in Inner Asia, Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University for Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit, University of Cambridge (Bellingham: Western Washington University, 2006), 111–112.
17. Pope, Sons of the Conquerors, 234–239.
18. Landau and Kellner-Heinkele, Politics, 124–147.
19. Pope, Sons of the Conquerors, 293.
20. New York Times, August 7, 2009, A4.
Further Reading
REFERENCE WORKS
Abazov, Rafis. Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of Central Asia. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Atwood, Christopher P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File, 2004.
Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. The New Islamic Dynasties. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996.
Bregel, Yuri. An Historical Atlas of Central Asia. Leiden: Brill, 2003.
GENERAL STUDIES
Adshead, S. A. M. Central Asia in World History. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993.
André, Paul. The Art of Central Asia. London: Parkstone Press, 1996.
Barfield, Thomas. Perilous Frontiers: Nomadic Empires and China. Oxford: Blackwell, 1987.
Basilov, V. N. Nomads of Eurasia. Translated by M. F. Zirin. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1989.
Beckwith, Christopher I. Empires of the Silk Road. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009.
Çaatay, Ergun, and Doan Kuban, eds. The Turkic Speaking Peoples: 2000 Years of Art and Culture from Inner Asia to the Balkans. Munich: Prestel, 2006.
Canfield, Robert L., ed. Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. 1, Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
Di Cosmo, Nicola, Allen J. Frank, and Peter B. Golden, eds. The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Findley, Carter V. The Turks in World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Foltz, Richard C. Religions of the Silk Road. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.
Grousset, René. The Empire of the Steppes. Translated by Naomi Walford. New Brunswick: Rutge
rs University Press, 1970.
Hambly, Gavin, ed., Central Asia. New York: Delacorte Press, 1969.
Jagchid, Sechin, and Paul Hyer. Mongolia’s Culture and Society. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979.
Khazanov, Anatoly M. Nomads and the Outside World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
Lattimore, Owen. The Inner Asian Frontiers of China. American Geographical Society, 1940. Reprint, Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Liu, Xinru. The Silk Road in World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Millward, James A. Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
Roxburgh, David J., ed. Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600-1600. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2005.
Sinor, Denis, ed., The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
ANCIENT
Anthony, David W. The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.
Di Cosmo, Nicola. Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Cribb, Joe, and Georgina Herrmann. After Alexander: Central Asia Before Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Kohl, Philip L. The Making of Bronze Age Eurasia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Mallory, J. P., and Victor Mair. The Tarim Mummies. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000.
MEDIEVAL
Allsen, Thomas T. Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
———. “The Rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongolian Rule in North China.” The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. Edited by Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
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