The Culture of War. Roosevelt on the existence of one front: State of the Union message, Jan. 11, 1944, PPA, 1944-45, P 42Citizen participation in the war: “Review of the Progress of the War,” fireside chat by the President, June 12, 1944, PPA, 1944-45, p. 173. American attitudes toward the meaning of the war: Jerome S. Bruner, Mandate from the People (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1944), pp. 27-29. The Nation criticism of Roosevelt: The Nation, April 1, 1944, p. 381. Roosevelt’s summary of war goals, March 24, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, P 103 Roosevelt’s answer to critics, March 24, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, p. 109. Dos Passos’ observations: John Dos Passos, State of the Nation (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1944), pp. 181, 215-223. Roosevelt’s electoral standing: Cantril, pp. 627, 631, 632, 634, 635, 762-763. Brogan on American people at war: D. W. Brogan, “The American Way in War,” Harper’s, May 1944, pp. 491-499.
The Washington scene: Hurd, chap. 24. This section is based in part on personal observation by the author, as a government employee in Washington and Denver, 1942-43, and as an infantryman and combat historian, 1943-45. Civilian and servicemen attitudes toward the fact of war: Stouffer, chap. 9; see also John M. Blum, “The G.I. in the Culture of the Second World War,” Ventures, Spring 1968, pp. 51-56. Infantrymen’s attitude toward soldiers’ vote: Ernie Pyle, Brave Men (Holt, 1944), p. 137. “Why We Fight” films and their impact: Stouffer, pp. 461-468. Negro soldiers: Fish to Stimson, Feb. 1, 1944, Congressional Record, Vol. 90, Pt. 8, pp. A659-A66o; Hastie to Stimson, Feb. 29, 1944, text in Ulysses Lee, The Employment of Negro Troops (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1966), pp. 478-479; see Lee generally for a well-documented and significant treatment of this subject. Attitude of black troops toward discrimination: Stouffer, pp. 502-503. Stimson’s views generally: Stimson and Bundy, p. 461; Stimson Diary, Jan. 27, 1944. Myrdal on the ideological war: Myrdal, p. 1004. Roosevelt on problems of Negro servicemen: special conference for Negro Newspaper Publishers Association (full text in FDRL), Feb. 5, 1944, PPA, 1944-45, pp. 66-67. See, generally, Mina Curtiss (ed.), Letters Home (Boston: Little, Brown, 1944).
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Supply background to the invasion of France: Roland G. Ruppenthal, Logistical Support of the Armies, Vol. I, The European Theatre of Operations (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953). The British scene before the invasion: Pogue2; Churchill3, p. 596; Cornelius Ryan, The Longest Day (Simon and Schuster, 1959); Morison5. On the final meetings, see Pogue2, p. 170, n. 23. Enemy estimates and plans: Trevor-Roper, pp. 149-153, 164-165; B. H. Liddell Hart (ed.), The Rommel Papers (Harcourt, Brace, 1953), p. 465; Warlimont, pp. 407-408; Friedrich Ruge, “The Invasion of Normandy,” in Jacobsen and Rohwer, pp. 317-349. Hitler on Roosevelt: Liddell Hart, cited above, p. 465. The cross-channel attack: Harrison; Morison5; see also Churchill6; Eisenhower; Bradley, among other accounts and memoirs. Murrow’s broadcast: Edward R. Murrow, In Search of Light (Knopf, 1967), p. 81. Roosevelt prior to D day: Tully, p. 265; Hassett, p. 248. Press conference on morning of D day: PC 954, June 6, 1944; PPA, 1944-45, pp.154-160; see original transcript, FDRL, for slightly expanded coverage.
Crusade in France. Harrison describes operations in Normandy through the fall of Cherbourg. Eisenhower on the millionth man to land: Marshall to Roosevelt, July 4, 1944, PMRP, Box 23. Churchill’s visit to the war: Churchill6, p. 15. Roosevelt’s response: Roosevelt to Churchill, June 19, 1944, PMRP, Box 23. Differences over grand political strategy: see the able discussion in Ehrman1, pp. 249, 255; see also Ehrman1, pp. 345-367; Matloff, pp. 466-475. Churchill’s “solemn protest”: Ehrman1, p. 356. Churchill to Roosevelt on ANVIL, June 28, 1944: Churchill6, pp. 63-64. Roosevelt’s response, June 29, 1944: Churchill6, pp. 721-723. On composition of latter message, and on Roosevelt’s information that the British ultimately would give way on Trieste, see Leahy to Roosevelt, June 30, 1944, PMRP, Box 23. ANVIL landings: Morison5, chap. 16. Churchill’s inspection: Churchill6, p. 100.
Roosevelt’s relations with de Gaulle, 1943 and early 1944: de Gaulle; FRUS, 1943, Vol. II; FRUS, 1944, Vol. IV; Viorst, chap. 11; Schoenbrun, chap. 5, which includes extensive documentation. Roosevelt on de Gaulle’s “infiltration”: Roosevelt to Churchill, Dec. 31, 1943; PL, p. 1474. Presentation of destroyer escort, Feb. 12, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, pp.70-72. French currency: Blum2, pp. 166-177; Nicolson, p. 377. Roosevelt to Marshall on de Gaulle: Roosevelt to Marshall, June 2, 1944 (in answer to Marshall to Roosevelt, May 17, 1944, enclosing Eisenhower to Marshall, n.d., including Eisenhower message for Roosevelt), FDRL. On Roosevelt’s attitude toward de Gaulle around the time of D day, see also Blum2, p. 168; Stimson and Bundy, p. 551. Churchill-de Gaulle exchange at this time: Churchill5, pp. 629-630. Preliminaries to de Gaulle’s visit to Washington: Viorst, p. 207; Hull, p. 1432; memorandum and correspondence, June 27, 1944, Stimson Papers. Roosevelt’s toast to de Gaulle, July 7, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, pp. 194-196; see also de Gaulle, pp. 265-275. Roosevelt on liberation of Paris, Aug. 24, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, pp.240-241. Stalin on Soviet military plans: Stalin to Roosevelt, June 7, 1944, Correspondence2, p. 145. Roosevelt’s toast to Mikolajczyk, June 7, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, PP160-163. Poland: Roosevelt to Stalin, June 19, 1944; Stalin to Roosevelt, July 23, 1944, Correspondence2, pp. 146, 152-153. Spheres of interest: Hull, pp. 1451-1452; Roosevelt to Churchill, June 11, 1944; Churchill to Roosevelt, June 11, 1944; Roosevelt to Churchill, June 13, 1944, all in Churchill6, pp. 75, 75-77. Stalin’s May Day order: Werth, pp. 842-843. Stalin’s comments on Churchill and Roosevelt: Djilas, p. 73.
Pacific Thunderbolts. Strategic situation in the Pacific, 1944: Matloff, chap. 20; Ehrman1, chap. 11; S. E. Morison, Neiu Guinea and the Marianas (Boston: Little, Brown, 1953), chap. 1, Differences between MacArthur and Navy: King and Whitehill; Whitney; Willoughby and Chamberlain. MacArthur’s strategy as quoted: Whitney, p. 120. Japanese naval situation: Morison, ibid., pp. 10-14. Strategic value of Marianas: Morison, ibid., pp. 157-158. Japanese plans and injunctions in the Marianas: Morison, ibid., p. 221; Philip A. Crowl, Campaign in the Marianas (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1960), p. 117. The “Great Marianas Turkey Shoot”: Morison, ibid., chaps. 14-16. Capture of Saipan: Carl W. Hoffman, Saipan: The Beginning of the End (Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, U.S. Marine Corps, 1950); Crowl, chaps. 3-12; see also Edmund G. Love, The 27th Infantry Division in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal Press, 1949). Guam: O. R. Lodge, The Recapture of Guam (Washington, D.C.: Historical Branch, G-9 Division, U.S. Marine Corps, 1954); Crowl, chaps. 15-20 (on army operations). See, generally, Jeter A. Isely and Philip A. Crowl, The U.S. Marines and Amphibious Warfare (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951); Earl S. Pomeroy, Pacific Outpost: American Strategy in Guam and Micronesia (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1951); Clark G. Reynolds, The Forging of an Air Navy (McGraw-Hill, 1968); Robert Sherrod, On to Westward! War in the Central Pacific (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1945).
Roosevelt to Churchill on importance of capture of Saipan, June 19, 1944: PMRP, Box 23. Trip to Oahu and arrival: Rosenman, pp. 456-457; Leahy, pp. 249-250; Rigdon, pp. 115-116. MacArthur’s arrival: Rigdon, p. 116; Rosenman, pp. 456-457; Whitney, p. 123. Data on the conferences is sketchy; see Matloff, p. 482; Leahy Diary, July 28, 29, 1944, LC; Leahy, pp. 250-251; Whitney, pp. 123-125; Willoughby and Chamberlain, pp. 233-236; Robert L. Eichelberger, Our Jungle Road to Tokyo (Viking, 1950), pp. 165-167. MacArthur on Philippines and Roosevelt’s re-election: Whitney, p. 125. Roosevelt’s tour of Oahu: Rosenman, p. 458; PPA, 1944-45, pp. 206-212; Films 2594-72, 208 UN 116, NA. Aleutians and trip back: Leahy, pp. 253-254; PPA, 1944-45, pp. 213-216. Reports received at sea: PMRP, Box 23. Roosevelt on the “low” that followed the ship, Aug. 14, 1944: PL, pp. 1527-1529. Roosevelt’s follow-up letters to MacArthur and to Nimitz: Rigdon, pp. 121-123.
Roosevelt as Commander in Chief. Roosevelt’s wish to be called Commander in Chief: Hull, p. 1111; King and Whitehill, p. 567; there is no reference to the episode by King, or in Leahy or Leahy Diary. Roosevelt’s desire to be conside
red a soldier: GGT (but undoubtedly Roosevelt) to S.T.E. (Early), Dec. 11, 1941, PL, pp. 1255-1256. Roosevelt on not overruling his military advisers: address to Advertising War Council Conference, March 8, 1944, PPA, 1944-45, p. 99; see also Sherwood, p. 948. Noncommissioning of La Guardia and La Guardia background: Arthur Mann, La Guardia: A Fighter Against His Time (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1959); Stimson and Roosevelt: Stimson Diary, March 27, 30, April
6,7, 9, 10, May 3, 1943; Charles Burlingham to Stimson, March 28, 1943,with copies of Burlingham-La Guardia correspondence; Stimson to Burlingham, March 30, 1943; Stimson to Roosevelt, April 6, 1943; Roosevelt to Stimson, April 8, 1943; Stimson to Roosevelt, April 12, 1943; all in Stimson Papers, Box 400; Roosevelt to Stimson, Oct. 15, 1943, PL, p. 1456. On later developments: Roosevelt to Stimson (unsigned), Sept. 29, 1944, PMRP, Box 12; Hopkins to Roosevelt, Sept. 30, 1944, HHP. Roosevelt on Patton: PC 927, Dec. 17, 1943; PPA, 1943, p. 552. Second Patton incident: Pogue2, pp. 164-166. Stimson on Roosevelt’s nomination of generals: Stimson to Roosevelt, April 12, 1943, Stimson Papers, Box 400; see Rawleigh Warner to Mrs. Frank Knox, March 29, 1949, Knox Papers, LC. Roosevelt’s technical advice, respectively: Roosevelt to Acting Cominch, Feb. 23, 1943, PMRP, Naval Aide’s File, Logistics; King to Roosevelt, July 17, 1942; Roosevelt to Knox, Aug. 12, 1942; Roosevelt to Leahy, Sept. 16, 1942, all three in PMRP, Naval Aide’s File, General Corr., 1942-45, Box 31; Wilson Brown to King, Nov. 27, 1944, PMRP, Box 15; Roosevelt to Stimson and Knox, Sept. 20, 1943, PL, pp. 1443-1444; see also Roosevelt to Land, Sept. 14, 1942, U. S. Maritime Comm., FDRL. Calf shooting: PC 948, May 6, 1944; PPA, 1944-45, pp. 119-120. The AWOL WAC, July 2, 1944: Hassett, pp. 257-258.
Exchange with reporters over Leahy’s status: PC 836, July 21, 1942; Leahy, p. 97. Paradox of American civil-military relations: William Emerson, “Franklin Roosevelt as Commander-in-Chief in World War,” Military Affairs, 1958, pp. 181-207 (this excellent article has been of great assistance in this analysis, especially on the question of the change over time in the extent of Roosevelt’s disagreements with his military advisers); see also Greenfield1, pp. 41 ft; Neustadt, pp. 214-215. War as an aberration for Americans: Louis Morton, “National Policy and Military Strategy,” Virginia Quarterly Review, Winter 1960, pp. 10, 11. See also the excellent essays in Greenfield2 for implications for Roosevelt as Commander in Chief. Churchill as Commander in Chief: see his volumes, especially the documents and appendices; also Morison5, p. 12. Stalin as Commander in Chief: Deutscher, p. 466; Zhukov. Roosevelt on military planners’ occasional conservatism: Matloff, p. 211. Hitler as Commander in Chief: Shirer, p. 1134; see also almost any of the memoirs of German generals. Roosevelt on officers’ plot against Hitler: Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt, July 2i, 1944, PL, p. 1525; Roosevelt to Stalin, July 21, 1944, Correspondence2, pp. 150-151.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Suspension of presidential election: PC 934, Feb. 8, 1944, PC Transcripts. Discord in America: S. K. Ratcliffe. “America’s Crucial Year,” Contemporary Review, April 1944, p. 198. Letters to Roosevelt: these are drawn from a wider selection made by Paul Streicker in Aug. 1966 from a large collection in OF 4166. Chandler is quoted in PM, Jan. 27, 1944, p. 16. As a Good Soldier. Willkie’s 1944 nomination campaign: Barnard, chaps. 20-21; Johnson, chap. 7. Willkie’s speech to industrialists: Johnson, pp. 250-251. His statement after defeat: Johnson, p. 280. MacArthur’s campaign: Vandenberg, pp. 75-89. For Roosevelt’s earlier view of MacArthur, see Tugwell, p. 349; Jonathan Daniels, The Time Between the Wars (Doubleday, 1966), p. 207. MacArthur’s discussion with naval officers prior to Pearl Harbor: Report of Conference, PMRP, Manila, Dec. 6, 1941. Naval Aide’s File, Warfare, Philippine Islands, Box 17; see also Forrestal, pp. 17-18. Published material on Dewey is slight; for the pre-1944 period, see Stanley Walker, Dewey: An American of This Century (McGraw-Hill, 1944), a campaign biography. Dewey’s acceptance speech: ibid., pp. 344-350.
Roosevelt on not running for a fourth term: Leahy, p. 239; Roosevelt to Patrick H. Drewry, March 7, 1944, PL, pp. 1499-1500. Roosevelt on running for a fourth term: Roosevelt to Hannegan, July 11, 1944, PPA, 1944-45, pp. 197-198. Personal memoirs and accounts of preconvention Democratic party politicking are numerous; see, for example, Rosenman, chap. 22; Blum2, pp. 280-281; Byrnes, chap. 13; Barkley, pp. 188-191; Allen, chap. 10; Lord, pp. 526-537; Josephson, pp. 616-625; Steinberg, chap. 24; Tully, pp. 275-277. Roosevelt’s handling of 1940 nomination rivals: Burns, pp. 411-412. Roosevelt’s handling of vice-presidential ambitions: Tully to Roosevelt, July 11 and 13, 1944, PSF, Box 54; Blum2, pp. 280-281; Byrnes, pp. 219-222; Krock interview, Oral History Project, p. 90. July 11 conference with party leaders: Allen, pp. 127-128; Rosenman, pp. 443-445; Byrnes, pp. 221-222. Wallace’s response: “Report from Senator Guffey,” July 11, 1944, PSF, Wallace Folder; Lord, p. 529. Byrnes’s response: Byrnes, pp. 223-224. Roosevelt’s personal statement for Wallace: Roosevelt to Samuel D. Jackson, July 14, 1944, PPA, 1944-45, pp. 199-200. Roosevelt’s pressure on Truman: Rosenman, p. 451; Steinberg, p. 213. Roosevelt’s acceptance speech, July 20, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, pp. 201-206.
A New Party? Roosevelt’s spell of pain in the railroad car: Roosevelt and Shalett, pp. 351-352; Roosevelt to Eleanor Roosevelt, July 21, 1944, PL, p. 1525. Rumors of Roosevelt’s ill-health: Daniels interview, p. 42, HSTL; Reilly, pp. 195, 196; Moran, p. 242. FBI agent’s report: Hopkins to Roosevelt, July 28, 1944; Leahy to Hopkins, July 28, 1944, PMRP, “Trip to Pacific Theatre,” Box 23. On pictures of Roosevelt giving his acceptance speech, see Rosenman, p. 453. Arrangements for Seattle speech: Roosevelt to Reilly, PMRP, Box 23; see also Reilly, pp. 191, 193-194. Aides’ reaction to the talk: Rosenman, pp. 461-462; Reilly, p. 194; Tully, pp. 277-278. Roosevelt’s physical condition: Bruenn Ms. (see notes, chap. 15 above); Rigdon, p. 130. Roosevelt’s seeming boredom with political detail: Roosevelt and Shalett, p. 351. Roosevelt on “ghoulish” newspapermen: Reilly, pp. 196-197. Signing of GI Bill of Rights, June 22, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, pp. 180-185. Missouri Valley Authority, Sept. 21, 1944: PPA, 1944-45, pp. 274-278; see also PC 980, Nov. 14, 1944; PPA, 1944-45. pp.419-422
Willkie’s views after Wisconsin: Wendell L. Willkie Papers, Speech Material Cont., LC; Johnson, chap. 9. Willkie’s support in the presidential Democratic party: Barnard, p. 478. Joseph Barnes, Willkie (Simon and Schuster, 1952), pp. 367-371, has rounded up the rumors of Willkie as a possible Roosevelt running mate; see also Roosevelt to Norris, July 17, 1944, PL, p. 1522, which indicates that Roosevelt had a role in feelers put out to Willkie even though he implies he had not. “Leaking” of Roosevelt’s letter: Barnard, p. 482. So secretive were both Roosevelt and Willkie about their preliminary negotiations over party realignment that documentary sources are limited; see, however, Roosevelt to Willkie, July 13, 1944, PL, p. 1520; Roosevelt to Willkie, Aug. 21, 1944, PL, pp. 1531-1532; and Willkie statements and correspondence in Barnes and Barnard. Rosenman, chap. 24, offers the fullest and most firsthand report of Roosevelt’s actions. Hassett, p. 255, confirms that Roosevelt saw Pinchot on June 29, 1944.
A Grand Design? Specialized international co-operation: Myron Taylor to Roosevelt, n.d.; Roosevelt to Taylor, June 5, 1944, PSF, Myron Taylor Folder, Vatican; Berle to Roosevelt, May 19, 1944; Roosevelt to Berle, May 20, 1944, PSF, Hull Folder, 2-44. Bretton Woods: Stettinius to Roosevelt, Feb. 29, 1944, with enclosures; Roosevelt to Byrnes, March 6, 1944; Byrnes to Roosevelt, March 10, 1944, FDRL; Blum2, chaps. 5-6; Roy F. Harrod, The Life of John Maynard Keynes (St. Martin’s, 1963), chap. 13. Roosevelt’s message to conference: Blum2, p. 257; see also PPA, 194445, pp.138-140. Popular attitudes toward postwar international organization: Cantril, pp. 908-910. Congressional role: Young, pp. 191-196. Background and basic documents on Dumbarton Oaks: Robert A. Divine, Second Chance (Atheneum, 1967); Welles; FRUS, 1944, Vol. I, General, pp. 614-923. Roosevelt on the intellectuals is quoted in Divine, p. 167. Daily progress reports submitted to Roosevelt by Stettinius are in FDRL and included in FRUS. Dewey criticism and response: Hull, pp. 1686-1699. Soviet stand on veto: FRUS, ibid., pp. 738
, 742, 748, 750, 766, 777; see Kolko, pp. 272-274. Roosevelt-Gromyko meeting: FRUS, ibid., pp. 784-787.
Second Quebec Conference: Ismay on the Churchills’ and Roosevelt’s reunion: Ismay, p. 373. Roosevelt’s and Churchill’s estimate of the situation: Churchill6, pp. 153-154; Ehrman1, p. 509. Adriatic strategy: Ehrman2, p. 511; Matloff, p. 510; Churchill6, pp. 155-156. Churchill’s offer of fleet: Churchill6, pp. 154-155; Ehrman1, p. 518; King and Whitehill, p. 569; Ismay, p. 374. Expectations of German defeat: Matloff, p. 508. Allied zones: Ehrman2, p. 515; Blum2, pp. 330, 372; Stimson Papers. Morgenthau plan: Blum2, chap. 7; Churchill6, pp. 156-157; Morgenthau-Churchill confrontation: Blum2, pp. 373-374; Moran, pp. 190-193; McCloy notes, Sept. 20, 1944, Stimson Papers. Roosevelt-Churchill statement: Blum2, p. 371. Churchill-Eden exchange: Blum2, p. 371; Eden, p. 476. On Roosevelt’s backing away from Morgenthau plan, cf. Eleanor Roosevelt, pp. 334-335. Stimson’s reaction: memorandum, Sept. 5, 1944, Stimson Papers. Hyde Park days: Leahy, p. 265; see also Hassett, pp. 271-272.
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