The Cypria: Reconstructing the Lost Prequel to Homer's Iliad

by D M Smith

  When the king received this news he was greatly distraught, and right before their eyes he collapsed. After a moment he was revived, with those that stood by helping him to his feet, and he would have gone to the council had they not restrained him. Now having left their father the sons of Priam rushed to the council, where up to that time Antimachus had been railing against the Greeks and their threats, and suggesting that Menelaus ought to be detained as a hostage.[79] His proposal had been met with silence, with only Antenor speaking out, stating that he would resist any such decree with all of his power. After this the pair engaged in a fierce debate, until, having expended all speech they came to blows. And all who were present pronounced Antimachus to be unruly and seditious, and banished him from the council.

  But when the sons of Priam entered, Panthus begged Hector—for among the princes he was held to be the most wise and virtuous—that Helen, especially now that the Greeks had come as supplicants, be amicably restored to them. Never mind Paris’ love for Helen, which he had had ample time to enjoy. With things being as they were, they must detain the envoys no longer and allow them to depart with Helen, pledging friendship and union between the two kingdoms.

  Upon hearing this Hector was moved to tears, recalling his brother’s crime. However, he did not agree that Helen should be returned, for she had come into their house as a suppliant, and as such was under their protection. But were they to describe those items which had been taken with her, these he would gladly restore. And in the place of Helen, Cassandra or Polyxena—whomever seemed best to the envoys—would be given in marriage to Menelaus along with many splendid gifts.

  At this, Menelaus was enraged: “By Heracles, what a noble act is this,” he cried, “if the one despoiled of his wife should be forced into another marriage according to the will of his enemies!”

  Then Aeneas spoke against him: “You would not even be conceded this,” he said, “were it up to me, for I oppose it, as do all the friends and kinsmen of Paris who give him counsel. For there are and always shall be those sworn to protect the house and kingdom of Priam. Are only those who come from Greece permitted to commit such rape? The Cretans who seized Europa from Sidon, and Ganymede from our lands. And what of Medea? You cannot be ignorant of how she was carried off from Colchis all the way to Iolcus. And not to forget the first rape of all, when Io was abducted from the land of the Sidonians and carried to Argos.[80] But thus far we have been talking in circles. If you do not take your ships and promptly flee these lands you will experience Trojan might, for here we have an abundance of young men who are skilled in war, and our auxiliaries increase in number with each passing day.”

  And when he had finished his speech, Odysseus calmly said: “Then by Heracles, delay not these hostilities any longer. Give the signal for war; let those who first inflicted the injury also commence the battle. We will await your attack.” Following this exchange the envoys left the council.

  Soon after, word spread among the people of how Aeneas had spoken against the envoys, and they raised a mighty tumult; they believed he was the reason why the house of Priam was universally hated, and that his blundering intervention would see the kingdom overthrown.

  —Dictys Cretensis, Ephemeris belli Trojani, II

  Briseis and Chryseis

  Firstly, the Greeks sent a detachment from the main army to ravage the kingdoms around Troy. Thus they invaded the country of Cycnus, and despoiled the surrounding lands. But when they set fire to the city of Neandreia, which was the capital of Cycnus’ kingdom and also where his sons were being raised, the citizens offered no resistance to the invasion. With many prayers and tears they went down on their knees and begged the Greeks, by all things human and divine, to spare their city; its citizens were innocent of the sins of its leader, and were ready to bend the knee. Thus mercy was shown, and the city saved.

  However, the Greeks did require that the royal sons Cobis and Corianus and their sister Glauce be turned over to them; Glauce was given to Ajax in addition to the rest of his booty, on account of his mighty deeds.

  Not long after, the Neandreians came as suppliants to the Greeks, asking for peace and friendship, promising to do as they commanded. This done, the Greeks now attacked and destroyed Cilla. But they did not sack Carene, which was not far distant, out of respect for their new-found allies the Neandreians, who were lords of that city.

  In the meantime Achilles, believing that some of the cities near to Troy were supplying them with weapons and soldiers, set off for Lesbos with a number of ships and took the island without difficulty. He slew Phorbas, the king of that land, who had committed many hostile acts against the Greeks, and captured Diomede, daughter of the king, along with a great quantity of plunder. Then on to Skyros[81] and Hierapolis, both cities filled with riches, which he attacked with great force and easily conquered and razed within a few days.

  Every place he went fell under his yoke; he plundered them all, spreading terror throughout the region. Any settlements that seemed friendly to Troy were stripped and laid waste. The other neighbouring peoples, being informed of what was happening, now hurried to make treaties with him to prevent the desolation of their own lands. They promised to give half of their harvest in return for peace, and to this he agreed. With these acts Achilles rejoined the army in great glory, bringing much plunder. At the same time the king of the Scythians, having learned of the Greeks’ arrival, came bearing many gifts.

  But Achilles—not content with these deeds—now attacked the Cilicians, and after a few days of fighting he captured the city of Lyrnessus. Having slain Eetion, who was the ruler of that land, he filled his ships with a great amount of booty, and also abducted Chryseis, who was the daughter of Chryses and at that time the king’s wife.[82]

  Then he promptly moved on to conquer Pedasus, city of the Leleges. When their king, Brises, observed the ferocity of the siege, he realised they would not be able to mount a sufficient defence. With no hope of escape or salvation, he returned to his home while the rest of his men fought on, and hanged himself. Not long after the city was taken, with many of its people slain, as well as the capture of the king’s daughter, Briseis.[83]

  During the same time Telamonian Ajax went to the country of the Phrygians, and entering the kingdom of Teuthras he slew him in single combat.[84] After a few days he captured and burned the city, carrying away a vast quantity of plunder and abducting Tecmessa, daughter of the king.

  Now both of these leaders, having conquered and laid waste to many regions and performed mighty deeds, re-joined the army together as if by design, although they came from different directions. Then when the heralds had gathered together all of the soldiers and generals, they advanced into their midst one by one, displaying to all the fruits of their labour and industry. When the Greeks saw what they had captured they showered them with praise, and as the two heroes stood among them they were crowned with olive branches.

  Then when it came to dividing the spoils they consulted Nestor and Idomeneus, who were held to be the most wise and discerning among them. And so, without delay, judgement was made upon the spoils that Achilles had brought, with Chryseis, the wife of Eetion and daughter of Chryses, given to Agamemnon on account of his royal standing. To Achilles went Briseis, daughter of Brises, and he also retained Diomedea; given their similarities in age and upbringing it would have caused them great suffering were they to be parted. Indeed, they had gone down on their knees before Achilles and begged not to be separated. The rest of the spoils were distributed amongst the men according to merit.

  Then Ajax asked Odysseus and Diomedes to bring forth the plunder that he had won. From this, gold and silver were given to Agamemnon, in sufficient quantity as befitted his status as king; then to Ajax, as a reward for his outstanding deeds and toil, they conceded Tecmessa, the daughter of Teuthras.

  Then the remaining spoils were divided among the others, and the grain distributed throughout the army.

  —Dictys Cretensis, Ephemeris belli Trojani, II<
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  Troilus and the Cattle of Aeneas

  The barbarians showing no courage, Achilles waylaid Troilus and slaughtered him in the sanctuary of Thymbraean Apollo,[85] and coming by night to the city he captured Lycaon. Moreover, taking some of the chiefs with him, Achilles laid waste the country, and made his way to Ida to lift the kine of Aeneas. But Aeneas fled, and Achilles killed the neatherds and Nestor, son of Priam, and drove away the kine.[86]

  —Apollodorus, Epitome

  The Capture of Lycaon

  A son of Dardanian Priam ... even Lycaon [was] taken from his father’s orchard ... in the night; he was cutting with the sharp bronze the young shoots of a wild fig-tree, to be the rims of a chariot; but upon him, an unlooked-for bane, came godly Achilles. For that time had he sold him into well-built Lemnos, bearing him thither on his ships, and the son of Jason had given a price for him;[87] but from thence a guest-friend had ransomed him—and a great price he gave—even Eetion of Imbros, and had sent him unto goodly Arisbe; whence he ... fled forth secretly and [returned] to the house of his fathers.[88]

  —Homer, Iliad, XXI

  IX.

  Then follows the death of Palamedes, the plan of Zeus to relieve the Trojans by detaching Achilles from the Hellenic confederacy, and a catalogue of the Trojan allies.

  —Proclus, Chrestomathy

  The Death of Palamedes

  Odysseus, because his deceit had been undermined by Palamedes son of Nauplius, now plotted to be rid of him. At last he formed a plan, and sent one of his soldiers to Agamemnon, saying that he had seen in a dream that the camp must be moved for a single day. Supposing it to be true, Agamemnon gave the command that the camp should be moved for one day. That night Odysseus secretly hid a great amount of gold where the tent of Palamedes had been, and also gave a letter to a Phrygian prisoner for the hand of Priam. He then instructed one of his soldiers to kill the prisoner only a short distance from the camp.

  On the following day, when the men returned to the camp, a certain soldier discovered the dead body of the Phrygian, on whom was placed the letter which Odysseus had written, and brought it to Agamemnon. In it was written: “TO PALAMEDES FROM PRIAM”, along with the promise of gold—as much as had been hidden in the tent—if he would betray the camp of Agamemnon as they had agreed.

  Palamedes, when he was hauled before the king, denied the charge. But when they went to his tent and discovered the gold, Agamemnon believed it to be true. Thus Palamedes was ensnared by Odysseus, and the entire army was deceived into killing an innocent man.[89]

  —Hyginus, Fabulae, CV

  Catalogue of the Trojan Allies

  During same time, at Troy, the army of allies and mercenaries who had been hired as auxiliary troops—perhaps due to frustration and tedium, or a yearning for their homelands—now began to mutiny. On perceiving this, Hector was compelled by necessity to muster his soldiers; to have them armed, and thus ready to follow when the signal was given. So when, having received reports that the time was ripe and his men were all in arms, he ordered them to march; himself the leader and commander of the army.

  It now seems fitting to list the kings of the allies and friends of Troy, as well as those mercenaries and auxiliaries from various regions who had been hired by the sons of Priam to defend the kingdom.[90] The first to charge from the city gates was Pandarus the son of Lycaon, from Lycia; then Hippothous and Pylaeus from Pelasgian Larissa; Acamas and Peirous of Thrace; and after them Euphemus son of Troezenus, leading the Ciconians. There was boastful Pylaemenes of Paphlagonia, whose father was Melius; Odius and Epistrophus, sons of Minuus, the Halizonian king; Sarpedon born of Xanthus,[91] leader of the Lycians, from Solymum; Nastes and Amphimachus, sons of Noimon from Caria; and Antiphus and Mesthles, whose sire was Talaemenes, from Maeonia. Then Glaucus son of Hippolochus, of Lycia, chosen by Sarpedon to be his second-in-command because he stood above all others in counsel and deeds of arms; Phorcys and Ascanius of Phrygia; Chromius and Ennomus, Mygdonians from Mysia; and Pyraechmes son of Axius, from Paeonia;[92] Amphius and Adrastus, born of Merops, from Adrestia; Asius son of Hyrtacus, from Sestos. Then the other Asius, Dymas’ son and brother of Hecuba, from Phrygia. All of these listed were followed by many men of disparate customs and languages, which caused them to go into battle without any order.

  When the Greeks took notice of this, they advanced onto the field and formed a battle line under the direction of Menestheus, the Athenian, organised according to their various tribes and regions. Now, having deployed their army, they were for the first time preparing to engage the full might of the enemy, yet neither side dared to commit; each stood their ground for a time, until—as though by mutual agreement—both sides sounded the retreat.

  —Dictys Cretensis, Ephemeris belli Trojani, II

  With this account of the Trojan allies the story of the Cypria comes to a close, and we are now ready for Homer to pick up the tale:

  The Wrath of Achilles

  The wrath sing, goddess, of Peleus’ son, Achilles, that destructive wrath which brought countless woes upon the Achaeans, and sent forth to Hades many valiant souls of heroes, and made them themselves spoil for dogs and every bird; thus the plan of Zeus came to fulfilment, from the time when first they parted in strife Atreus’ son, king of men, and brilliant Achilles…

  —Homer, Iliad, I

  APPENDIX

  Fragments of the Cypria

  I have managed to incorporate most of the surviving quotes and fragments of the Cypria into the endnotes for the relevant chapters, but we are left with several where the original placing in the narrative is unclear. These I give below. For a much more detailed examination of the Cypria fragments, consult Malcolm Davies’ The Greek Epic Cycle (Bristol Classical Press, 1989).

  ‘Menelaus, know that the gods made wine the best thing for mortal man to scatter cares.’

  —Athenaeus, 35 C

  Probably after the abduction of Helen, spoken by Agamemnon or Nestor.

  ‘So they feasted all day long, taking nothing from their own houses; for Agamemnon, king of men, provided for them.’

  —Alcidamas, Contest of Homer and Hesiod

  Alcidamas (c. 4th century BC) here attributes the quote to Homer, who was sometimes thought to be author of the Cypria. Possibly describes the feasting at Tenedos, when Philoctetes is bitten by the serpent.

  ‘I never thought to enrage so terribly the stout heart of Achilles, for very well I loved him.’

  —Louvre Papyrus

  Perhaps spoken by Agamemnon, when he offends Achilles by inviting him late to the feast at Tenedos. The false marriage with Iphigenia is also a possibility, although Achilles’ level of involvement in this plot in the Cypria is unknown—his wrath in Euripides’ play may well be an invention of the playwright.

  ‘That it is Zeus who has done this, and brought all these things to pass, you do not like to say; for where fear is, there too is shame.’

  —Plato, Euthyphron

  Unclear.

  ‘By him she conceived and bare the Gorgons, fearful monsters who lived in Sarpedon, a rocky island in deep-eddying Oceanus.’

  —Herodian, On Peculiar Diction

  Unclear. In Hesiod’s Theogony, which is roughly contemporary with the Cypria, the Gorgons are the children of the sea gods Phorcys and Ceto.

  ‘Again, Stasinus says: “He is a simple man who kills the father and lets the children live.”’

  —Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis VII. 2. 19

  This quote has been thought to refer to the murder of Astyanax, although this does not occur until Troy falls to the Greeks—well after the Cypria is supposed to have ended. It may describe what is to come, in the same way that the Iliad occasionally mentions Achilles’ impending death, or as Jonathan S. Burgess suggests, be evidence that the Cypria did not originally end before the events of the Iliad, and in fact narrated the entire Trojan War. An obscure scholia referring to Polyxena supposedly dying of a wound inflicted by Diomedes and Odysseus during the sack of Tro
y in the Cypria may support this theory, or else be another foreshadowing, as Polyxena is usually depicted as being present at the death of Troilus (see Chapter VIII note 9).

  Bibliography

  Source Documents

  Anonymous, Excidium Troiae, translated by D. M. Smith (2017)

  Anonymous, Dictys Cretensis Ephemeris belli Trojani, translated by D. M. Smith (2017)

  Apollodorus, Bibliotheca & Epitome, translated by Sir James George Frazer (Loeb Classical Library, 1921)

  Colluthus, The Rape of Helen, translated by A. W. Mair (Loeb Classical Library, 1928)

  Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis, translated by Edward P. Coleridge (George Bell & Sons, 1891)

  Fragments of the Cypria, translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White (Loeb Classical Library, 1914)