PART III: WAR AND PEACE
WAR
D’Annunzio’s accounts of his personal experiences are taken from LL, DG, N and LS, and from letters in Ledda and LdA. His speeches, with useful supporting material, are in PV and PDRi. For wartime Venice see Damerini. For a narrative of the war on the Italian front see Mark Thompson’s superb and comprehensive account: nearly all facts and figures relating to the fighting, and many eyewitness impressions, are from his book. Malipiero in Damerini. Marinetti, Piazza and Lawrence in Wohl. Emperor Karl in Bello. “Ordinary soldiers,” see Bosworth (2006). “It looked…,” see Thompson. Mazzini in Riall. Respect accorded the blind in Roshwald. “Swift as the wing,” trans. Thompson. For “war bread,” America and Barrès, see Alatri. For the fighting by the Timavo see Thompson. Evandro the bittern in Antongini. Diaz in Alatri. Gatti in Thompson. “An officer,” Rodd and Gatti in Thompson. Giarda in Damerini. For Caporetto see Thompson and Duggan. Malaparte in Duggan. Diaz in Thompson. Martini in Alatri. Wells in Wohl. Musil in Thompson.
PEACE
For Mussolini see Griffin, Duggan, Bosworth and Berghaus. For D’Annunzio’s depression see Ojetti and Antongini. For the peace talks see Macmillan and Thompson. “He wholeheartedly,” in Woodhouse. “By divine right,” in Giuriati. Albertini in Andreoli. British officer in Macmillan. “With a violent magnificence,” in Damerini. “Discontent began,” Santoro. Balbo in Duggan. Mannarese in Alatri. For the Arditi see Berghaus, Bosworth 2002, Duggan and Ledeen. Carli in Berghaus. “We have no direction…,” in Ledeen. Caviglia in Ledeen. Mussolini in Berghaus. “The true Italy,” in Woodhouse. Bissolati’s proposal in Thompson. “The administration, the law…,” see Schnapp. For the raid on Avanti! see Ledeen and Bosworth (2002). For Orlando in Paris see Macmillan. Hankey in Duggan. British ambassador and Clemenceau in Macmillan. Hardinge in Sassoon. First Sea Lord in Thompson. “Very white…,” in Macmillan. “The Rubicon…,” see Rhodes. “A young poet,” Comisso. Orlando and Lloyd George in Macmillan. Mussolini in Duggan. “He is thought…,” in Sassoon. For Fiume’s history, demography and economy see Žic (1998). For the war’s end in Fiume see Žic (1998) and Macdonald. For events in Fiume, Nov. 1918–Aug. 1919, see Macdonald, Comisso, Giuriati, Powell, de Felice 1974, Ledeen, and Lyttleton. “The public life…,” see Powell. House in Macmillan. “Await me…,” in Ledeen. “Tell the faithful…,” see Macdonald. “Believe me…,” in Powell. Badoglio in Andreoli. “In barely educated…,” in de Felice. “I no longer speak,” in Macdonald. “Tell our brothers,” in Giuriati. “We have sworn,” in Ledeen.
THE CITY OF THE HOLOCAUST
Letter to Mussolini in Ledda. For the march on Fiume see Susmel, Santoro, Macdonald and de Felice (1974). For d’Annunzio’s speeches in Fiume see PV with commentary by de Felice, and PDRi. “Sealing their ears…,” see Comisso. Countess di Robilant in Ledeen. “Supremely beautiful,” and “Who? Me?” in Comisso. “Gaits, cries, songs…,” see Kochnitzky. “Sceptical observer,” see Nitti. “Everyone enjoys,” in Ledeen. “Each soldier…,” in Comisso. For d’Annunzio’s intentions see Žic (1998), Rhodes, Ledeen, de Felice and Chiara. Letter to Mussolini in Andreoli. Nitti and Badoglio in Andreoli. Marinetti in Ledeen and Berghaus. Vice-consul in Ledeen. The “American observer,” in Powell. “The people stormed,” see LS. “Colloquies,” see Macdonald and Sitwell (1925). “All the members…,” in Ledeen. “Chorus Girls and Champagne,” in Sitwell (1925). “A Bordello…,” in Ledeen. “It is a known fact…,” in Woodhouse. For the “Black Band,” see Nardelli and Kochnitzky. “The words of the poet…,” Maranini in Ledeen. For hostility to Croats see Macdonald, Ledeen, and Žic. “Rabble stuffed…,” in Woodhouse. “The moneychanger…,” in Ledeen. For the Modus Vivendi see Giuriati.
THE FIFTH SEASON
Caviglia in de Felice. For the feast of St. Sebastian see Žic (1998) and Ledeen. “The art of command…,” in Comisso. For Fiume’s intellectual life see Berghaus and Comisso. For Keller see Comisso. “Madame, in future…,” in Antongini. The Bishop in Alatri. Italian communist in Ledeen. “Virtually empty…,” in Ledeen. For La Disperata, the theft of Keller’s eagle and his planned Festa see Comisso. The text of the Carta di Carnaro is in PV and PDRi, with commentaries. “It was a period…,” in Ledeen. “Look at my soldiers…,” in Comisso. “Traitors … robust blood,” in Ledeen. Caviglia in Ledeen. For cults and sects see Comisso and Berghaus. Festa Yoga in Berghaus. Zanella in Macdonald. De Ambris in Ledeen. “A kind of king,” in Jullian. Boulanger in Antongini. “Treacherous government…,” in Comisso. Gramsci in de Felice (1974). “He never went near…,” in Alatri. “Help me…,” in Alatri. “This one Italy…,” in Rhodes. “You haven’t seen,” in Comisso.
CLAUSURA
For my account of Italy’s interwar political and economic history and the rise of fascism I have drawn on the works of Bosworth (from whom Mussolini’s words and the majority of other quotations are taken), Duggan (another important source for quotations), Mack Smith, Lyttleton, Sassoon, Gentile, de Felice, Schnapp. For d’Annunzio’s life at the Vittoriale the prime sources are his own DM and LS, and numerous letters collected in Ledda and LdA or cited in Andreoli. Ojetti, Antongini, Jullian, Nardelli, Damerini, Winwar, Chiara, Andreoli and Guerri have all provided anecdotes. Beerbohm in Woodhouse. “One can imagine…,” in Ojetti. Sarfatti in Schnapps. Tasca in Lyttleton. Cabruna in Winwar. Marinetti in Griffin. Strachey in Stonor Saunders. Ward Price in Foot. Pirandello in Duggan. Carra in Andreoli.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
D’Annunzio’s works are available in Mondadori’s excellent Meridiani editions under the following titles:
Altri Taccuini (1976)
Prose de Romanzi (two volumes, 1988 and 1989)
Prose di Ricerca di Lotta di Commando (two volumes, 2005)
Scritti Giornalistici (two volumes, 1996 and 2003)
Taccuini (1965)
Teatro: Tragedie, Sogni e Misteri (two volumes, 1939 and 1940)
Tutte le Novelle (1992)
Versi d’Amore e di Gloria (two volumes, 1982 and 1984)
Each volume is copiously annotated, with introductions, chronology and bibliography.
The introductions are by various hands. The original series editor was E. Bianchetti. He has been succeeded by the great d’Annunzio scholar, Annamaria Andreoli.
Individual works are also available in Mondadori’s Oscar paperback editions, with scholarly notes and introductions. Particularly useful are: Le Faville del Maglio (ed. Andreoli, 1995); Diari di Guerrra (ed. Andreoli, 2002); Lettere d’Amore (ed. Andreoli, 2000).
Adamson, Walter L., “The Impact of World War I on Italian Political Culture,” in Aviel Roshwald and Richard Stites (Cambridge, 2002)
Alatri, Paolo, Gabriele d’Annunzio (Turin, 1983)
———(ed.), Scritti Politici di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Milan, 1980)
———Nitti, d’Annunzio e la Questione Adriatica (Milan, 1959)
Albertini, Luigi, Origins of the War of 1914–18 (London, 2005)
Andreoli, Annamaria, Il Vivere Inimitabile: Vita di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Milan, 2001)
———D’Annunzio (Bologna, 2004)
———Il Vittoriale degli Italiani (Milan, 2004)
Antona-Traversi, Camillo, Vita di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Florence, 1933)
Antongini, Tom, D’Annunzio (London, 1938)
Baldick, Robert, The Life of J. K. Huysmans (Cambridge, 2006)
Barjansky, Catherine, Portraits with Backgrounds (New York, 1947)
Bello, Piero, La Notte di Ronchi (Milan, 1920)
Berghaus, Günter, Futurism and Politics (Oxford, 1996)
Boccardo, Piero, and Xavier F. Salomon, The Agony and the Ecstasy—Guido Reni’s St. Sebastians (Dulwich/Milan, 2007)
Boccioni, Umberto, Gli Scritti Editi e Inediti (Milan, 1971)
Bosworth, R. J., Italy and the Approach of the First World War (London, 1983)
———Mussolini (London, 2002)
———Mussolini’s Italy (London, 2006)
Bourke, Joanna, An Intimate History of Killing (London, 1999)
Brendon, Piers, The Dark Valley (London, 2000)
Bultrini, Nicola, and Maurizio Casarola, Gli Ultimi (Chiari, 2005)
Cadorna, Luigi, La Guerra alla Fronte Italiano (Milan, 1921)
Carli, Mario, Con d’Annunzio a Fiume (Milan, 1920)
Carlyle, Thomas, On Heroes, Hero-worship and the Heroic in History (London, 1993)
Carr, Helen, The Verse Revolutionaries (London, 2009)
Caviglia, Enrico, Il Conflitto di Fiume (Milan, 1948)
Chadwick, Owen, Britain and the Vatican during the Second World War (Cambridge, 1987)
Chiara, Piero, Vita di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Milan, 1978)
Clark, Martin, Modern Italy (London, 1996)
Clarke, I. F., Voices Prophesying War (Oxford, 1966)
Comisso, Giovanni, Opere (Milan, 2002)
Croce, Benedetto, A History of Italy (Oxford, 1929)
D’Annunzio, Mario, Con Mio Padre sulla Nave del Ricordo (Milan, 1950)
Damerini, Gino, D’Annunzio e Venezia, Postfazione di Giannantonio Paladini (Venice, 1992)
De Felice, Renzo, Sindicalismo Revoluzionario e Fiumanesimo nel Carteggio de Ambris/d’Annunzio (Milan, 1973)
———D’Annunzio Politico (Milan, 1979)
———(ed.), Carteggio d’Annunzio-Mussolini (Milan, 1971)
———La Penultima Ventura—Scritti e Discorsi Fiumani a cura di Renzo de Felice (Milan, 1974)
De Waal, Edmund, The Hare with Amber Eyes (London, 2010)
Dos Passos, John, The Fourteenth Chronicle (London, 1974)
Duggan, Christopher, The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy since 1796 (London, 2007)
Farrell, Joseph, A History of Italian Theatre (Cambridge, 2006)
Flaubert, Gustave, Salammbô, trans. A. J. Krailsheimer (Harmondsworth, 1977)
Foot, Michael, The Trial of Mussolini by “Cassius’ (London, 1943)
Gadda, Carlo Emilio, Giornale di Guerra e di Prigionia (Milan, 1999)
Gatti, Angelo, Caporetto: diario di guerra (Bologna, 1997)
Gatti, Guglielmo, Vita di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Firenze, 1956)
Gentile, Emilio, Storia del Partito Fascista (Bari, 1989)
———The Sacralisation of Politics in Fascist Italy, trans. Keith Botsford (Harvard, 1996)
Germain, André, La Vie amoureuse de Gabriele d’Annunzio (Paris, 1925)
Gerra, Ferdinando, L’Impresa di Fiume (Milan, 1974)
Giannantoni, Mario, La Vita di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Mondadori, 1933)
Gilmour, David, The Pursuit of Italy (London, 2011)
Giuriati, Giovanni, Con d’Annunzio e Millo in Difesa dell’Adriatico (Rome, 1953)
Glenny, Misha, The Balkans (London, 1999)
Griffin, Gerald, Gabriele d’Annunzio: The Warrior Bard (London, 1935)
Griffin, Roger, The Nature of Fascism (London, 1991)
———(ed.), Fascism (Oxford, 1995)
Guerri, Giordano Bruno, D’Annunzio: l’Amante Guerriero (Milan, 2008)
Hemingway, Ernest, Across the River and into the Trees (London, 1966)
———A Farewell to Arms (London, 2005)
Hérelle, Georges, Notolette dannunziane (Pescara, 1984)
Hollingdale, R. J. (ed.), A Nietzsche Reader (Harmondsworth, 1978)
Huysmans, Joris Karl, Against Nature, trans. Robert Baldick (London, 2003)
James, Henry, Selected Literary Criticism, ed. Morris Shapira (Cambridge, 1981)
Jullian, Philippe, D’Annunzio (Paris, 1971)
Kochnitzky, Leone, La Quinta Stagione o i Centauri de Fiume (Bologna, 1922)
Ledda, Elena (ed.), Il Fiore delle Lettere—Epistolario (Alessandria, 2004)
Ledeen, Michael A., The First Duce: d’Annunzio at Fiume (London, 1977)
Lussu, Emilio, Sardinian Brigade (London, 2000)
Lyttleton, Adrian, The Seizure of Power (Princeton 1987; revised edition 2004)
Macbeth, George, The Lion of Pescara (London, 1984)
Macdonald, J. N., A Political Escapade: The Story of Fiume and d’Annunzio (London, 1921)
Mack Smith, Denis, Modern Italy: A Political History (London, 1997)
———Mussolini (London, 1981)
MacMillan, Margaret, Peacemakers (London, 2003)
Marinetti, Filippo Tomaso, Les Dieux s’en vont: d’Annunzio reste (Paris, 1906)
———Selected Writings, ed. R. W. Flint (London, 1972)
Martini, Ferdinando, Diario 1914–18 (Milan, 1966)
Melograni, Piero, Storia Politica della Grande Guerra, 1915–18 (Bari, 1977)
Moretti, Vito, D’Annunzio Pubblico e Privato (Venice, 2001)
Muñoz, Antonio (ed.), Ricordi Romani di Gabriele d’Annunzio (Rome, 1938)
Mussolini, Benito, My Autobiography (New York, 1928)
Nardelli, Federico and Livingston, Arthur, D’Annunzio: a Portrait (London, 1931)
Nicolson, Harold, Some People (London, 1926)
Nietzsche, Friedrich, A travers l’oeuvre de F. Nietzsche; extraits de tous ses ouvrages, ed. Lauterbach and Wagnon (Paris, 1893)
Nitti, Francesco Saverio, Rivelazioni (Naples, 1948)
Ojetti, Ugo, As They Seemed To Me, trans. Henry Furst (London, 1928)
Ottinger, Didier (ed.), Futurism (London, 2009)
Paléologue, Maurice, My Secret Diary of the Dreyfus Case, 1894–99, trans. Erich Mosbacher (London, 1957)
Palmerio, Benigno, Con d’Annunzio alla Capponcina (Florence, 1938)
Panzini, Alfredo, La Guerra del ’15 (Bologna, 1995)
Parker, Peter, The Old Lie (London, 1987)
Pasquaris, G. M., Gabriele d’Annunzio—Gli Uomini del Giorno (Milan, 1923)
Pater, Walter, The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry (London, 1902)
———Marius the Epicurean (London, 2008)
Paxton, R. O., The Anatomy of Fascism (London, 2004)
Powell, Edward Alexander, The New Frontiers of Freedom from the Alps to the Aegean (www.gutenberg.org/files/17292/17292-h/17292-h.htm)
Praz, Mario, The Romantic Agony (Oxford, 1970)
Procacci, Giovanna, Soldati e Prigionieri nella Grande Guerra (Turin, 2000)
Rhodes, Anthony, The Poet as Superman: A Life of Gabriele d’Annunzio (London, 1959)
Riall, Lucy, Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero (London, 2007)
Ridley, Jasper, Mussolini (London, 1997)
Roberts, David, Syndicalist Tradition and Italian Fascism (Manchester, 1979)
Rodd, Sir J. Rennell, Social and Diplomatic Memories (http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/memoir/Rodd/Rodd10.htm)
Rolland, Romain, Gabriele d’Annunzio et la Duse: Souvenirs (Paris, 1947)
Roshwald, Aviel, and Richard Stites (eds), European Culture in the Great War (Cambridge, 2002)
Ryerson, Scot D., and Michael Yaccarino, Infinite Variety, the Life and Legend of the Marchesa Casati (Minnesota, 2004)
Safranski, Rüdiger, Nietzsche: a Philosophical Biography (London, 2002)
Santoro, Antonio, L’Ultimo dei Fiumani: Un Cavaliere di Vittorio Veneto Racconta (Salerno, 1994)
Sassoon, Donald, Mussolini and the Rise of Fascism (London, 2007)
Schiavo, Alberto (ed.), Futurismo e Fascismo (Rome, 1981)
Schnapp, Jeffrey T. (ed.), A Primer of Italian Fascism (Lincoln, Nebraska, 2000)
Sforza, Carlo, L’Italia dalla 1914 al 1944 quale io la vidi (Rome, 1944)
Sitwell, Osbert, Discursions on Travel, Art and Life (London, 1925)
———Noble Essences (London, 1950)
Soffici, Ardengo, I diari della Grande Guerra (Florence, 1986)
Sontag, Susan, “Fascinating Fascism,” in A Susan Sontag Reader (Harmondsworth, 1983)
Souhami, Diana, Wild Girls (London, 2004)
Stanford, Derek (ed.), Writing of the Nineties: from Wilde to Beerbohm (London, 1971)
Starkie, Walter, The Waveless Plain: An Italian Autobiography (London, 1938)
Stonor Saunders, Frances, The W
oman who Shot Mussolini (London, 2010)
Susmel, E., La Città di Passione; Fiume negli Anni 1914–20 (Milan, 1921)
Tasca, Angelo, The Rise of Italian Fascism 1918–22 (London, 1938)
Thompson, Mark, The White War (London, 2008)
Toseva-Karpowicz, Ljubinka, D’Annunzio u Rijeci (Rijeka, 2007)
Tosi, Guy, La Vie et le rôle de d’Annunzio en France au début de la Grande Guerre, 1914–15 (Paris, 1961)
Trevelyan, G. M., Scenes from Italy’s War (London, 1919)
Turr, Stefania, Alle Trincee d’Italia (Milan, 1918)
Valeri, Nino, d’Annunzio davanti al Fascismo (Florence, 1963)
Vecchi, Ferruccio, Arditismo Civile (Milan, 1920)
Walker, Alan, Liszt, the Virtuoso Years (Cornell, 1988)
Weaver, William, Duse (London, 1984)
Wickham Steed, Henry, Through Thirty Years: 1892–1922 (London, 1924)
Winwar, Frances, Wingless Victory (New York, 1956)
Wohl, Robert, A Passion for Wings: Aviation and the Western Imagination (London, 1994)
Woodhouse, John, Gabriele d’Annunzio: Defiant Archangel (Oxford, 1998)
Woodward, Christopher, In Ruins (London, 2001)
Žic, Igor, Kratka Povijest grada Rijeke (Rijeka, 1998)
———Rijecˇki Orao, Venecijanski Lav i Rimska Vucˇica (Rijeka, 2003)
Zipes, Jack (ed.), The Complete Fairytales of the Brothers Grimm (New York, 1987)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Jonathan Keates, David Jenkins, Rupert Christiansen and—most especially—my brother James Hughes-Hallett, for reading and commenting on early drafts of this book. Thanks to the numerous people with whom I’ve talked about d’Annunzio and related topics over the past eight years: those conversations helped to focus my ideas and set me off on new lines of enquiry. I’m especially grateful to Mladen Urem, whose help in the archives made my visit to Rijeka so fruitful and who introduced me to Igor Zicˇ. The two of them made it possible for me to be the first of d’Annunzio’s biographers to write an account of d’Annunzio’s Fiume which includes the Croatian view of that episode. Thanks to the London Library for entrusting their beautiful early editions of d’Annunzio’s works to me.
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