3. Interview of Claudio Aporta by author, January 25, 2012.
4. Gilly Leshed et al., “In-Car GPS Navigation: Engagement with and Disengagement from the Environment,” in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New York: ACM, 2008), 1675–1684.
5. David Brooks, “The Outsourced Brain,” New York Times, October 26, 2007.
6. Julia Frankenstein et al., “Is the Map in Our Head Oriented North?,” Psychological Science 23, no. 2 (2012): 120–125.
7. Julia Frankenstein, “Is GPS All in Our Heads?,” New York Times, February 2, 2012.
8. Gary E. Burnett and Kate Lee, “The Effect of Vehicle Navigation Systems on the Formation of Cognitive Maps,” in Geoffrey Underwood, ed., Traffic and Transport Psychology: Theory and Application (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2005), 407–418.
9. Elliot P. Fenech et al., “The Effects of Acoustic Turn-by-Turn Navigation on Wayfinding,” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 54, no. 23 (2010): 1926–1930.
10. Toru Ishikawa et al., “Wayfinding with a GPS-Based Mobile Navigation System: A Comparison with Maps and Direct Experience,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 28, no. 1 (2008): 74–82; and Stefan Münzer et al., “Computer-Assisted Navigation and the Acquisition of Route and Survey Knowledge,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 26, no. 4 (2006): 300–308.
11. Sara Hendren, “The White Cane as Technology,” Atlantic, November 6, 2013, theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/11/the-white-cane-as-technology/281167/.
12. Tim Ingold, Being Alive: Essays on Movement, Knowledge and Description (London: Routledge, 2011), 149–152. The emphasis is Ingold’s.
13. Quoted in James Fallows, “The Places You’ll Go,” Atlantic, January/February 2013.
14. Ari N. Schulman, “GPS and the End of the Road,” New Atlantis, Spring 2011.
15. John O’Keefe and Jonathan Dostrovsky, “The Hippocampus as a Spatial Map: Preliminary Evidence from Unit Activity in the Freely-Moving Rat,” Brain Research 34 (1971): 171–175.
16. John O’Keefe, “A Review of the Hippocampal Place Cells,” Progress in Neurobiology 13, no. 4 (2009): 419–439.
17. Edvard I. Moser et al., “Place Cells, Grid Cells, and the Brain’s Spatial Representation System,” Annual Review of Neuroscience 31 (2008): 69–89.
18. See Christian F. Doeller et al., “Evidence for Grid Cells in a Human Memory Network,” Nature 463 (2010): 657–661; Nathaniel J. Killian et al., “A Map of Visual Space in the Primate Entorhinal Cortex,” Nature 491 (2012): 761–764; and Joshua Jacobs et al., “Direct Recordings of Grid-Like Neuronal Activity in Human Spatial Navigation,” Nature Neuroscience, August 4, 2013, nature.com/neuro/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nn.3466.html.
19. James Gorman, “A Sense of Where You Are,” New York Times, April 30, 2013.
20. György Buzsáki and Edvard I. Moser, “Memory, Navigation and Theta Rhythm in the Hippocampal-Entorhinal System,” Nature Neuroscience 16, no. 2 (2013): 130–138. See also Neil Burgess et al., “Memory for Events and Their Spatial Context: Models and Experiments,” in Alan Baddeley et al., eds., Episodic Memory: New Directions in Research (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 249–268. It seems revealing that one of the most powerful mnemonic devices, dating back to classical times, involves setting mental pictures of items or facts in locations in an imaginary place, such as a building or a town. Memories become easier to recall when they’re associated with physical locations, even if only in the imagination.
21. See, for example, Jan M. Wiener et al., “Maladaptive Bias for Extrahippocampal Navigation Strategies in Aging Humans,” Journal of Neuroscience 33, no. 14 (2013): 6012–6017.
22. See, for example, A. T. Du et al., “Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Entorhinal Cortex and Hippocampus in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 71 (2001): 441–447.
23. Kyoko Konishi and Véronique D. Bohbot, “Spatial Navigational Strategies Correlate with Gray Matter in the Hippocampus of Healthy Older Adults Tested in a Virtual Maze,” Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 5 (2013): 1–8.
24. Email from Véronique Bohbot to author, June 4, 2010.
25. Quoted in Alex Hutchinson, “Global Impositioning Systems,” Walrus, November 2009.
26. Kyle VanHemert, “4 Reasons Why Apple’s iBeacon Is About to Disrupt Interaction Design,” Wired, December 11, 2013, www.wired.com/design/2013/12/4-use-cases-for-ibeacon-the-most-exciting-tech-you-havent-heard-of/.
27. Quoted in Fallows, “Places You’ll Go.”
28. Damon Lavrinc, “Mercedes Is Testing Google Glass Integration, and It Actually Works,” Wired, August 15, 2013, wired.com/autopia/2013/08/google-glass-mercedes-benz/.
29. William J. Mitchell, “Foreword,” in Yehuda E. Kalay, Architecture’s New Media: Principles, Theories, and Methods of Computer-Aided Design (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2004), xi.
30. Anonymous, “Interviews: Renzo Piano,” Architectural Record, October 2001, archrecord.construction.com/people/interviews/archives/0110piano.asp.
31. Quoted in Gavin Mortimer, The Longest Night (New York: Penguin, 2005), 319.
32. Dino Marcantonio, “Architectural Quackery at Its Finest: Parametricism,” Marcantonio Architects Blog, May 8, 2010, blog.marcantonioarchitects.com/architectural-quackery-at-its-finest-parametricism/.
33. Paul Goldberger, “Digital Dreams,” New Yorker, March 12, 2001.
34. Patrik Schumacher, “Parametricism as Style—Parametricist Manifesto,” Patrik Schumacher’s blog, 2008, patrikschumacher.com/Texts/Parametricism%20as%20Style.htm.
35. Anonymous, “Interviews: Renzo Piano.”
36. Witold Rybczynski, “Think before You Build,” Slate, March 30, 2011, slate.com/articles/arts/architecture/2011/03/think_before_you_build.html.
37. Quoted in Bryan Lawson, Design in Mind (Oxford, U.K.: Architectural Press, 1994), 66.
38. Michael Graves, “Architecture and the Lost Art of Drawing,” New York Times, September 2, 2012.
39. D. A. Schön, “Designing as Reflective Conversation with the Materials of a Design Situation,” Knowledge-Based Systems 5, no. 1 (1992): 3–14. See also Schön’s book The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action (New York: Basic Books, 1983), particularly 157–159.
40. Graves, “Architecture and the Lost Art of Drawing.” See also Masaki Suwa et al., “Macroscopic Analysis of Design Processes Based on a Scheme for Coding Designers’ Cognitive Actions,” Design Studies 19 (1998): 455–483.
41. Nigel Cross, Designerly Ways of Knowing (Basel: Birkhäuser, 2007), 58.
42. Schön, “Designing as Reflective Conversation.”
43. Ibid.
44. Joachim Walther et al., “Avoiding the Potential Negative Influence of CAD Tools on the Formation of Students’ Creativity,” in Proceedings of the 2007 AaeE Conference, Melbourne, Australia, December 2007, ww2.cs.mu.oz.au/aaee2007/papers/paper_40.pdf.
45. Graves, “Architecture and the Lost Art of Drawing.”
46. Juhani Pallasmaa, The Thinking Hand: Existential and Embodied Wisdom in Architecture (Chichester, U.K.: Wiley, 2009), 96–97.
47. Interview of E. J. Meade by author, July 23, 2013.
48. Jacob Brillhart, “Drawing towards a More Creative Architecture: Mediating between the Digital and the Analog,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Montreal, Canada, March 5, 2011.
49. Matthew B. Crawford, Shop Class as Soulcraft: An Inquiry into the Value of Work (New York: Penguin, 2009), 164.
50. Ibid., 161.
51. John Dewey, Essays in Experimental Logic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1916), 13–14.
52. Matthew D. Lieberman, “The Mind-Body Illusion,” Psychology Today, May 17, 2012, psychologytoday.com/blog/social-brain-social-mind/201205/the-mind-body-illusion. See also Matthew D. Lieberman, “What Makes Big Ideas Sticky?,” in Max Brockman, ed., What’s Next? Dispatche
s on the Future of Science (New York: Vintage, 2009), 90–103.
53. “Andy Clark: Embodied Cognition” (video), University of Edinburgh: Research in a Nutshell, undated, nutshell-videos.ed.ac.uk/andy-clark-embodied-cognition.
54. Tim Gollisch and Markus Meister, “Eye Smarter than Scientists Believed: Neural Computations in Circuits of the Retina,” Neuron 65 (January 28, 2010): 150–164.
55. See Vittorio Gallese and George Lakoff, “The Brain’s Concepts: The Role of the Sensory-Motor System in Conceptual Knowledge,” Cognitive Neuropsychology 22, no. 3/4 (2005): 455–479; and Lawrence W. Barsalou, “Grounded Cognition,” Annual Review of Psychology 59 (2008): 617–645.
56. “Andy Clark: Embodied Cognition.”
57. Shaun Gallagher, How the Body Shapes the Mind (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2005), 247.
58. Andy Clark, Natural-Born Cyborgs: Minds, Technologies, and the Future of Human Intelligence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 4.
59. Quoted in Fallows, “Places You’ll Go.”
Chapter Seven: AUTOMATION FOR THE PEOPLE
1. Kevin Kelly, “Better than Human: Why Robots Will—and Must—Take Our Jobs,” Wired, January 2013.
2. Jay Yarow, “Human Driver Crashes Google’s Self Driving Car,” Business Insider, August 5, 2011, businessinsider.com/googles-self-driving-cars-get-in-their-first-accident-2011-8.
3. Andy Kessler, “Professors Are About to Get an Online Education,” Wall Street Journal, June 3, 2013.
4. Vinod Khosla, “Do We Need Doctors or Algorithms?,” TechCrunch, January 10, 2012, techcrunch.com/2012/01/10/doctors-or-algorithms.
5. Gerald Traufetter, “The Computer vs. the Captain: Will Increasing Automation Make Jets Less Safe?,” Spiegel Online, July 31, 2009, spiegel.de/international/world/the-computer-vs-the-captain-will-increasing-automation-make-jets-less-safe-a-639298.html.
6. See Adam Fisher, “Inside Google’s Quest to Popularize Self-Driving Cars,” Popular Science, October 2013.
7. Tosha B. Weeterneck et al., “Factors Contributing to an Increase in Duplicate Medication Order Errors after CPOE Implementation,” Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 18 (2011): 774–782.
8. Sergey V. Buldyrev et al., “Catastrophic Cascade of Failures in Interdependent Networks,” Nature 464 (April 15, 2010): 1025–1028. See also Alessandro Vespignani, “The Fragility of Interdependency,” Nature 464 (April 15, 2010): 984–985.
9. Nancy G. Leveson, Engineering a Safer World: Systems Thinking Applied to Safety (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2011), 8–9.
10. Lisanne Bainbridge, “Ironies of Automation,” Automatica 19, no. 6 (1983): 775–779.
11. For a review of research on vigilance, including the World War II studies, see D. R. Davies and R. Parasuraman, The Psychology of Vigilance (London: Academic Press, 1982).
12. Bainbridge, “Ironies of Automation.”
13. See Magdalen Galley, “Ergonomics—Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going,” undated speech, taylor.it/meg/papers/50%20Years%20of%20Ergonomics.pdf; and Nicolas Marmaras et al., “Ergonomic Design in Ancient Greece,” Applied Ergonomics 30, no. 4 (1999): 361–368.
14. David Meister, The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999), 209, 359.
15. Leo Marx, “Does Improved Technology Mean Progress?,” Technology Review, January 1987.
16. Donald A. Norman, Things That Make Us Smart: Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine (New York: Perseus, 1993), xi.
17. Norbert Wiener, I Am a Mathematician (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1956), 305.
18. Nadine Sarter et al., “Automation Surprises,” in Gavriel Salvendy, ed., Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1997).
19. Ibid.
20. John D. Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics in Automation Design,” in Gavriel Salvendy, ed., Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 3rd ed. (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2006), 1571.
21. For more on human-centered automation, see Charles E. Billings, Aviation Automation: The Search for a Human-Centered Approach (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997); and Raja Parasuraman et al., “A Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 30, no. 3 (2000): 286–297.
22. David B. Kaber et al., “On the Design of Adaptive Automation for Complex Systems,” International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics 5, no. 1 (2001): 37–57.
23. Mark W. Scerbo, “Adaptive Automation,” in Raja Parasuraman and Matthew Rizzo, eds., Neuroergonomics: The Brain at Work (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 239–252. For more on the DARPA project, see Mark St. John et al., “Overview of the DARPA Augmented Cognition Technical Integration Experiment,” International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction 17, no. 2 (2004): 131–149.
24. Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics.”
25. Interview of Raja Parasuraman by author, December 18, 2011.
26. Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics.”
27. Interview of Ben Tranel by author, June 13, 2013.
28. Mark D. Gross and Ellen Yi-Luen Do, “Ambiguous Intentions: A Paper-like Interface for Creative Design,” in Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (New York: ACM, 1996), 183–192.
29. Julie Dorsey et al., “The Mental Canvas: A Tool for Conceptual Architectural Design and Analysis,” in Proceedings of the Pacific Conference on Computer Graphics and Applications (2007), 201–210.
30. William Langewiesche, Fly by Wire: The Geese, the Glide, the “Miracle” on the Hudson (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2009), 102.
31. Lee, “Human Factors and Ergonomics.”
32. CBS News, “Faulty Data Misled Pilots in ’09 Air France Crash,” July 5, 2012, cbsnews.com/8301-505263_162-57466644/faulty-data-misled-pilots-in-09-air-france-crash/.
33. Langewiesche, Fly by Wire, 109.
34. Federal Aviation Administration, “NextGen Air Traffic Control/Technical Operations Human Factors (Controller Efficiency & Air Ground Integration) Research and Development Plan,” version one, April 2011.
35. Nathaniel Popper, “Bank Gains by Putting Brakes on Traders,” New York Times, June 26, 2013.
36. Thomas P. Hughes, “Technological Momentum,” in Merritt Roe Smith and Leo Marx, eds., Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994), 101–113.
37. Gordon Baxter and John Cartlidge, “Flying by the Seat of Their Pants: What Can High Frequency Trading Learn from Aviation?,” in G. Brat et al., eds., ATACCS-2013: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Application and Theory of Automation in Command and Control Systems (New York: ACM, 2013), 64–73.
38. David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Industrial Automation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), 144–145.
39. Ibid., 94.
40. Quoted in Noble, Forces of Production, 94.
41. Ibid., 326.
42. Dyson made this comment in the 1981 documentary The Day after Trinity. Quoted in Bill Joy, “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us,” Wired, April 2000.
43. Matt Richtel, “A Silicon Valley School That Doesn’t Compute,” New York Times, October 23, 2011.
Interlude, with Grave Robber
1. Peter Merholz, “ ‘Frictionless’ as an Alternative to ‘Simplicity’ in Design,” Adaptive Path (blog), July 21, 2010, adaptivepath.com/ideas/friction-as-an-alternative-to-simplicity-in-design.
2. David J. Hill, “Exclusive Interview with Ray Kurzweil on Future AI Project at Google,” SingularityHUB, January 10, 2013, singularityhub.com/2013/01/10/exclusive-interview-with-ray-kurzweil-on-future-ai-project-at-google/.
Chapter Eight: YOUR INNER DRONE
1. Asimov’s Rules of Robotics—“the three rules that are built most deeply into a robot’s positronic brain”—first appeared in his 1942 short story “Runaround,” which can be found in the collection I, Robot
(New York: Bantam, 2004), 37.
2. Gary Marcus, “Moral Machines,” News Desk (blog), New Yorker, November 27, 2012, newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2012/11/google-driverless-car-morality.html.
3. Charles T. Rubin, “Machine Morality and Human Responsibility,” New Atlantis, Summer 2011.
4. Christof Heyns, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions,” presentation to the Human Rights Council of the United Nations General Assembly, April 9, 2013, www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session23/A-HRC-23-47_en.pdf.
5. Patrick Lin et al., “Autonomous Military Robotics: Risk, Ethics, and Design,” version 1.0.9, prepared for U.S. Department of Navy, Office of Naval Research, December 20, 2008.
6. Ibid.
7. Thomas K. Adams, “Future Warfare and the Decline of Human Decisionmaking,” Parameters, Winter 2001–2002.
8. Heyns, “Report of the Special Rapporteur.”
9. Ibid.
10. Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1976), 20.
11. Mark Weiser, “The Computer for the 21st Century,” Scientific American, September 1991.
12. Mark Weiser and John Seely Brown, “The Coming Age of Calm Technology,” in P. J. Denning and R. M. Metcalfe, eds., Beyond Calculation: The Next Fifty Years of Computing (New York: Springer, 1997), 75–86.
13. M. Weiser et al., “The Origins of Ubiquitous Computing Research at PARC in the Late 1980s,” IBM Systems Journal 38, no. 4 (1999): 693–696.
14. See Nicholas Carr, The Big Switch: Rewiring the World, from Edison to Google (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008).
15. Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 140.
16. W. Brian Arthur, “The Second Economy,” McKinsey Quarterly, October 2011.
17. Ibid.
18. Bill Gates, Business @ the Speed of Thought: Using a Digital Nervous System (New York: Warner Books, 1999), 37.
19. Arthur C. Clarke, Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible (New York: Harper & Row, 1960), 227.
The Glass Cage: Automation and Us Page 26
