by Linda Gordon
cross-burnings, 142
direct-democracy amendment, 150–51
feminism and the KKK, 157–61
Finnish immigrants, 148
firing of non-Protestant government workers, 156
history of racist laws, 139–40
hypocrisy about drinking, 96
Klan arrival in 1921, 139, 141–42
Klan growth, 142
Klan leaders, about, 139–45
Klan membership, 139, 142
Klan’s “blue ribbon” state, 221n
Klan’s state and local political power, 170
Klan support for railway workers strike of 1922, 106–7
Ladies of the Invisible Empire (LOTIE), 157–60
masculine and feminine labels used by Klan, 95
population and demographics, 139–40
targeting of Mexican Americans, 147
vigilantism, 99, 100, 103, 148–49, 154
woman suffrage, 110
Women’s Ku Klux Klan, 157, 158, 159–60
see also parochial schools, attacks on; Portland, OR; specific locations
original Ku Klux Klan. see Ku Klux Klan, after the Civil War
Orthodox Christians, 27, 41, 104, 148, 172
Palin, Sarah, 123
parades. see spectacles
paraphernalia, 74
paraphernalia and regalia, 15, 70, 86, 117, 118, 128, 191
see also costumes and robes
Parker, William H., 184
parochial schools, attacks on, 149–56
“Americanism” statutes, 155–56
court decisions, 155, 156
firing of non-Protestant government workers, 156
Klan support of public education, 150, 152
Oregon referendum, 150–51, 152–53, 154–55
Oregon’s constitutional amendment, 149, 150–52, 154–55, 242n
textbook requirements and, 155–56
see also anti-Catholicism; Oregon
Parsons, Elaine Frantz, 70
The Passing of the Great Race (Grant), 21
Paxton, Robert, 199
Pentacostalism, 119, 120, 237n
Perth Amboy, NJ, 104
petitions for citizenship in the Klan, 75, 180
Philadelphia, PA, 21
physical Klanishness, 245n
picnics, 1–2, 78
see also spectacles
Pierce, Walter M., 153–54, 155, 192
The Pilgrim (film), 50
Pillar of Fire religious movement, 88, 118, 119–20
poison squads, 117, 174
police
Barr’s attempts to reform, 117–18
Clarke and Tyler arrest, 114
considered venal and lazy, 4
investigation of Stephenson, 193
membership in Klan, 186
and ministers who opposed the Klan, 89
working with vigilantes, 26, 97–98, 102–4, 136, 148–49, 205
politics and the Klan
“the Decade” national strategy, 165–66
Democratic convention of 1924, 165, 166–70
dual electoral and nonelectoral strategies, 163–64, 207–8
immigration restriction in party platforms, 244n
Klan evaluation of US senators, 1923, 165, 213–16
Klansmen as governors, senators and congressmen, 164–65, 244n
state and local political power, 170–71
vision of democracy, 207–8
populism
demagogues and, 35, 200
as parent of Klan, 32–36, 198
producerist ethic and, 33
right-wing populism, 34, 199, 200, 201, 206, 208
in 1890s, 32–33, 202
social movements that express anger, 33–35
urban elite responses to, 20
women activists, 110
Populist Party, 22, 32–33, 34, 35, 110
Portland, ME, 170
Portland, OR
Klan membership, 142
Portland Police Vigilantes, 148–49
school board election in 1921, 142, 240n
vigilantes working with police, 103, 148–49
see also Oregon
Portland Telegram, 154, 175
Port of Portland, 140–41
Posse Comitatus, 198
Povich, Abe, 85
Povich, Shirley, 85
Powell, Luther Ivan, 141–43
premillenialism, 32
Price, G. W., 166
producerist ethic, 33
profiteering from Klan
by Clarke, 15, 16, 66
through dues, 15, 66–67, 191
financial incentives for recruitment, 64–66, 68–69, 182
member reaction to, 15, 67, 191
by Simmons, 15
by Tyler, 15, 18
Progressive Party, 34
Prohibition, Klan defense of, 32, 58, 60, 95–96
“Protocols of the Elders of Zion” (Ford), 11, 218n
“pure Americans,” 27
purity
conservative gender system and, 58–60
emotional structure, 55–60
homogeneity and, 34, 44, 58, 85, 208
Klan robes and, 71, 72
Klan yearning for, 56–60, 137
pure Americanism, 17, 27
racial purity, 14–15, 34, 57
religious purity, 57
sexual purity, 57–58
Quakers, 115
Queens of the Golden Mask, 112, 117, 243n
Quinn, Ole, 154
“race suicide,” 60, 131
Racine, WI, 80
racism
abhorrence of “race mixing,” 40
contradictions in, 40–41
as core component of Klan, 25, 197–98
Jews and, 28, 52, 221n
structures of feeling, 40–42
see also white supremacy
radio broadcasting
Alma White’s radio stations, 120, 121
Father Coughlin, 197
growth of commercial radio, 6, 76, 111
Klan radio stations, 175
Meier & Frank radio stations, 175
Pillar of Fire radio stations, 118, 120, 121
reactionary modernism, 51
recruitment for Klan
among Masons, 30, 86, 89, 142, 185
autonomy of local groups, 67–69, 228n
Birth of a Nation (film), 10, 97, 141, 218n
conspiracy theories and, 5, 35
crime talk as strategy, 96–97
by Daisy Barr, 117
decentralized system for, 64–65, 67–68
among evangelical Protestants, 29, 88–91, 231n
Evans’s reforms and, 17
exaggerated membership numbers, 2, 69–70, 217n
financial incentives, 64–66, 68–69, 182
high turnover of Klan members, 67, 191
methods, 19
as pyramid scheme, 65
recruiter hiring by Clarke and Tyler, 15
sale of Klan-related goods, 66
southern recruiting strategy of Clarke and Tyler, 64
through spectacles, 79–80
use of stealth, 86
referendums, 140, 150–51, 152–53, 207
Reich, William, 98
republican motherhood, 59, 227n
Richardson, Friend, 166
Richmond, IN, 62, 115
right-wing populism, 34, 199, 200, 201, 206, 208
see also fascism and fascist groups; populism
rituals
bonding effect of, 29, 76, 77, 79, 205
of fraternal orders, 13, 29–30, 31, 70
Klan costumes, ritual function of, 70–72
Klan initiation rituals, 62, 70–77
at Klan meetings, 74–75, 229n
Masonic rites as source of, 12–13, 30
militarism in, 206
naturalization, 73, 74–76, 81, 83, 212, 229n
as participatory theater, 76–77
&
nbsp; pleasure of, 76–77
songs and hymns, 74, 229n
Women’s Ku Klux Klan (WKKK), 127–28
see also initiation and installation
Rivers and Harbors Act, 140
Roaring Twenties, 6
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 136, 168
Roosevelt, Theodore, 60
Rosenthal, Simon, 175
Royal Riders of the Red Robe, 68, 138, 147, 235n
Saginaw, MI, 87
Sanger, Margaret, 60, 130–31, 239n
Sawyer, Reuben H., 144–45, 148, 152, 158
science, suspicion of, 42–43, 44, 51, 204
Scopes, John, 32, 222n
Scopes trial, 32, 51, 91, 156, 222n
Scottish Rite Masons, 141, 151
second Ku Klux Klan. see Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s
Senter, Laurena, 124
Shuler, Robert, 90–91
Silver Shirt Legion, 143
Simkins, Francis Butler, 20
Simmons, William Joseph, 25, 30
after congressional hearings, 20
Birth of a Nation and, 12
creation of second Klan, 12–13, 25, 218n
death, 16
early life, 12, 218n
hiring of Clarke and Tyler, 13, 14
Kamelia formation, 238n
Lanier University (Atlanta) purchase, 13
ownership of Klan, 16, 63
profiteering from Klan, 15
rituals from Masonic rites, 12–13, 30
sale of Klan, 16
as spokesman for Klan, 14, 19–20
vigilantism rhetoric, 98
weak morals and principles, 13, 15
Smelser, Neil, 204
Smith, Al, 53–54, 56, 162, 167–68, 169
social class. see class
Socialist Party, 18, 84, 106, 110, 187, 241n
social Klanishness, 245
social movements
businesses as, 219n
conspiracy theories and, 55
defined, 6–7, 217–18n
fear of, 4–5
Klan as social movement, 5, 6–8, 163–64, 202, 208
myth’s role in building, 69
populism and expression of anger, 33–35
power of rhetoric, 5
as products of psychological strain, 204
transience of, 194
Sorel, George, 69
South Bend, IN, 104
Southern Publicity Association, 13, 113
spectacles
choreography, 82–83, 200
cross-burnings, 83–84
entertainment and activities, 1–2, 81–82
KKK pageant, 1925, 190
Klantauquas, 79
mass naturalizations, 81
nonmembers and, 80, 82
parades at, 69, 80–81, 82, 152
profits from, 79, 80
recruitment through, 79–80
speakers at, 83
sports teams sponsored by Klan, 85–86
status anxiety, 5, 204
stealth, in recruitment and publications, 17, 86, 224n
Stephenson, David
conviction for kidnapping, rape, and murder, 192
coup against Simmons, 15–16
criminal activity and fraud, 17–18, 192–94
leadership and member recruitment, 17, 18, 69, 98–99, 186
oratorical skills, 17, 18
political power and strategy, 165–66, 171
wealth accumulated, 18
Sterling-Reed bill, 150, 242n
Sterling-Towner bill, 150, 242n
Steubenville, OH, 101, 234n
Stewart, Maria, 128
Stoddard, Lothrop, 22
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 45
structures of feeling, 39–61
abhorrence of “race mixing,” 40
about, 39, 43, 223n
Americanism, 41–44
antagonism to diversity, 58
anti-Catholicism, 27–29, 42, 45–49, 53–54, 56
anti-Semitism, 27–28, 49–54
contradictions in Klan beliefs, 61, 79–80, 153
fear, humiliation, and victimization tropes, 43–45, 112, 149
fear of immigrants, 54–55
feeling rules, 39, 43
inconsistencies, 61
purity as core of Klan ideology, 56–60, 137
resentment of elites, 3–4, 40, 42–43, 44–45
suspicion of science, 42–43, 44, 51, 204
suffrage for women. see woman suffrage
summer picnics
Colorado, 78
Indiana, 1–2
see also spectacles
Sumners, Hatton, 164
Tannenbaum, Frank, 20
Tarkington, Booth, 6
technology, 51, 63
temperance movement
Anti-Saloon League (ASL), 13, 28, 29, 101, 165, 222n, 247n
Klan defense of Prohibition, 32, 58, 60, 95–96
as parent of Klan, 28–29, 198
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), 28–29, 103, 110, 118, 124, 160
terrorism, 2, 26, 94, 100, 206
see also vigilantism
Terrors, defined, 73, 212
textbooks, Klan demands and requirements, 155–56, 196
Thatcher, Margaret, 123
A Thief in Paradise (movie), 176
third Klan, 83
Thompson, Dorothy, 207
Tillamook, OR, 171
Tipton, IN, 175
The Toll of Justice (movie), 176–77
Topenish, WA, 102
Towner-Sterling bill, 150, 242n
The Traitor Within (movie), 176
Tri-K Klub, for girls, 134
Truman, Harry, 165
Tulsa, OK, 92
turnover of Klan members, 67, 191
TWK (Trade with Klansmen), 172–73
Tyler, Elizabeth
about, 14, 113–15, 122–23
arrest for disorderly conduct, 114
eugenics cause, 113, 131
firing by Evans, 16, 115
partnership with Clarke, 13, 14, 16, 113–14
profiteering from Klan, 15, 18, 114
promotion of Klan with Simmons and Clarke, 13, 14–15, 63–64, 114
Searchlight (Klan newspaper), 114
share of Klan revenue, 14
Southern Publicity Association, 13, 113
southern recruiting strategy, 64
women’s rights advocacy, 123, 125
United Mine Workers (UMW), 104, 106, 187
Universal Negro Improvement Association, 93
University of Dayton, 101, 103, 104
University of Wisconsin, 86, 95
Upshaw, William David “Wee Willie,” 164–65, 220n
U’ren, William, 150–51, 152, 242n
“Ur-Fascism” (Eco), 199
US Children’s Bureau, 111
US senators, Klan evaluation of, 1923, 165, 213–16
vagrancy law, 233n
Valparaiso University, 217n
vigilantism, 93–107
attack on Little family, 93–94
Bellingham, WA, 164
court acquittals of, 100, 102, 154, 196
cross-burnings, 98, 101, 105, 163, 179
FBI investigation of, 192
Klan recruiting and, 97–98
in Klan traditions, 97, 137, 205–6
labor unions and, 104, 105–7
night riders, 97, 100, 103, 177
Oregon outrages, 100, 154
physical violence, 100–102
police working with vigilantes, 26, 97–98, 102–4, 136, 148–49, 205
against saloons, gambling, and immorality, 98–99
threats of violence, 93–94, 98, 99–100
violence justifications, 196
vocational Klanishness, 172
Wapato, WA, 102
Washington (state)
laws against immigrant land ownership or renting, 146
vigilantism, 102, 164
&nb
sp; Watson, Tom, 22, 33
weddings, 86–87
welfare programs, 59–60, 136, 247n
Wenatchee, WA, 102
Western American (newspaper), 125, 144, 159
Westminster College, 121
Wheatcraft, Vivian, 174
White, Alma, 88, 118–22, 123, 164, 234n, 237n
White Citizens Councils, 91, 198, 206
White, Edward Douglass, 165
White, Kent, 119
“white” racial category, changes over time, 181–82, 249n
white supremacy
first Klan, 2, 14, 39
second Klan, 2, 15, 40, 41, 94
twenty-first-century groups, 198, 249n
see also racism
White, William Allen, 20
Williamson County Law Enforcement League, 101
Williams, Raymond, 39, 43, 223n
Willson, Ellis O., 191
Wilson, Woodrow, 11, 17, 21, 165
Windsor, VT, 86
Wisconsin
Coast Guard support for Klan, 230n
German American socialists in Klan, 187
Klan recruiting, 30–31, 86
Klan spectacles, 80
University of Wisconsin Klan fraternity, 86, 95
vigilantism, 103
see also specific locations
Wobblies (Industrial Workers of the World, IWW) , 105–6, 142, 149, 240n
woman suffrage
Klan support for, 5, 59, 118, 129, 136
Nineteenth Amendment ratified, 109, 110, 117
partial suffrage in states, 110
see also feminism and the KKK; women’s political activism
women and the Klan. see feminism and the KKK
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), 28–29, 103, 110, 118, 124, 160
Women’s Ku Klux Klan (WKKK)
attempts to punish immorality, 134–36, 239n
charitable work, 132–33, 207
costumes and robes, 128
Daisy Barr and, 117, 118
Daughters of the American Revolution and, 124
formation and early growth, 112–13, 124–25
Klan’s economic boycotts and, 174
male expectations of female role rejected, 126
merging of other women’s groups with, 112–13, 158, 159, 243n
opinions about national issues, 130
opposition to secrecy in marriage, 131–32
in Oregon, 157, 158, 159–60
poison squads, 117, 174
political activism, 123, 132, 133, 137
revenue shared with the Klan, 125–26
rituals, 127–28
similarities to WCTU, 29
sociability and prestige of membership, 123, 127
social events, organization and labor, 128–29
support of women’s employment, 129–30
Women’s KKK funeral, Muncie, Indiana, 1923, 108
youth groups of the Klan and, 133–34, 157
see also feminism and the KKK
women’s political activism
contradictions within conservative feminism, 109, 112, 133, 136, 160–61, 206–7
history, 109, 110
Klan’s economic boycotts and, 174, 245n, 246n
