by Hugh Thomas
11. See Juan José Vega, Manco Inca, el gran rebelde (Lima, 1995).
12. She married later and lived in Cuzco. Hemming, The Conquest, 181.
13. Pedro Pizarro, 341.
14. Garcilaso, 2: 916.
15. Ibid., 1076.
16. Bartolomé de Segovia, Relación de muchas cosas acaecidas en el Perú, BAE, 209: 82.
17. Hemming, The Conquest, 183–88.
18. CDI, 24: 224.
19. Murúa, 233.
20. Pedro Pizarro, 300–301.
21. Garcilaso, 2: 799.
22. Pedro Pizarro, 304.
23. Ibid., 302. Others killed at this time included Juan Becerril and Martín Dominguez.
24. Murúa, 235–36.
25. The Spanish captains in this attack included Pedro del Barco, Diego Méndez, and Francisco de Villacastín. The first named, from Lobón, Medellín, had come to the Indies with Gil González Dávila, and went to Peru with Soto. Méndez was an Almagrist who was a half brother of Rodrigo de Orgóñez.
26. D’Altroy, 137.
27. Hemming, The Conquest, 215.
28. Enríquez de Guzmán, Libro, 127.
29. Busto Duthurburu, Pizarro, 2: 287.
30. See “Hernán Cortés y el Perú,” in Revista de Indias, 1948, 339.
31. Garcilaso, 839.
CHAPTER 24. ALMAGRO
1. Miguel Martínez Molina, “El soldado cronista,” Anuario de estudios americanos, no. 40 (1984): 167.
2. CDI, 22, 338.
3. CDI, 9: 526 and 20: 401.
4. Pedro Pizarro, 349.
5. D’Altroy, 147.
6. Garcilaso, 2: 823.
7. Alvarado in Oviedo, Historia, 5: 167.
8. Murúa, 248.
9. Valdivia was from either Castuesa or Campanario in the Serena in Extremadura. Others were: Antonio de Villalba, as sergeant major; Ansínez Diego de Rojas and Alonso de Mercadillo, being captains of horse; Diego de Urbina, being captain of pikemen; and Pedro de Vergara and Nuño de Castro, being captains of arquebusiers.
10. Enríquez de Guzmán, Libro, 133.
11. Garcilaso, 2: 855.
12. Ibid., 860. For commentary, see Busto Duthurburu, 2: 325.
13. Lockhart, The Men, 359.
CHAPTER 25. PIZARRO’S TRIUMPH AND TRAGEDY
1. Instruction of July 1536, published in Porrás Barrenechea, Cedulario, 177–95.
2. CDI, 3: 92–137.
3. The two brothers were sons of Pedro Suárez de Talavera and Catalina Carvajal. Juan’s fortunes surely had something to do with the fact that he had married Ana, a niece of García de Loaisa. When his wife died, he became a churchman and eventually bishop of Lugo.
4. Hemming, The Conquest, 239–41.
5. Valdivia, in a letter to Charles V, in José Toribio Medina, Cartas de Pedro de Valdivia (Seville, 1929), 215.
6. Pedro Pizarro, 389.
7. “Mire vuestra Señoría que yo me voy á España y que el remedio de todos nosotros está despues de Dios en la vida de vuestra Señoría. Digo esto porque estos de Chile andan muy desvergonzados, y si yo no me fuera no habia de que temer. Y decía la verdad Hernando Pizarro porque temblaban dél. Vuestra Señoría haga dellos amigos dándoles en que coman los que lo quisieren, y á los que no lo quisieren no consienta vuestra Señoría que se junten diez juntos en cincuenta leguas alrededor de adonde vuestra Señoría estuviere, porque si los deja juntar le han de matar. Si á vuestra Señoría matan, yo negociaré mal, y de vuestra Señoría no quedara memoria. Estas palabras dijo Hernando Pizarro, altas que todos le oimos.” Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, 5: 1844.
8. Varón Gabaí and Jacobs, 672. Hernando was arrested at Coatzacoalcos but released by the viceroy.
9. Pedro Pizarro, 404; Hemming, The Conquest, 254.
10. CDI, 3: 138.
11. But as we have seen, Medina del Campo was also the city where such great experts in fantastical journeys as Garcia de Montalvo, the reviver of Amadís de Gaula, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo, had been born and lived. See Luis Fernández Martín, Hernando Pizarro en el Castillo de la Mota (Valladolid, 1991).
12. Garcilaso, 2: 886; Hemming, The Conquest, 285.
13. Pedro Pizarro, 418.
14. On Pizarro’s house, see Busto Duthurburu, 2: 352. It had a ranchería and a corral, for Indian servants and black slaves.
15. See Salvatore Munda, El asesinato de Francisco Pizarro (Lima, 1985); also Hugo Ludeña, “Versiones temprana sobre la muerte de Don Francisco Pizarro,” Boletín de Lima 37, January 1985.
16. Varón Gabai and Jacobs, 661.
17. Well discussed in ibid., 82, 206ff.
18. AGI Patronato, leg. 192, no. 1, r. 12, cited in Varón Gabai and Jacobs, 110.
CHAPTER 26. VACA DE CASTRO IN PERU
1. James Lockhart, Spanish Peru (Madison, Wisc., 1968), 134.
2. Otte, Las Perlas, 89. See also Schäfer, 2: 177.
3. See Bonet Correa, “Santo Domingo de Lima,” in Monasterios Iberoamericanos, 227.
4. Pedro Pizarro, 429.
5. Garcilaso, 2: 902.
6. Ibid., 912.
7. Ibid., 921.
8. Ibid., 922.
9. Pedro Pizarro, 234.
10. Garcilaso, 2: 931.
CHAPTER 27. GONZALO PIZARRO AND ORELLANA SEEK CINNAMON AND FIND THE AMAZON
1. José Toribio Medina, The Discovery of the Amazon (New York, 1934), 13.
2. Michael Goulding et al., The Smithsonian Atlas of the Amazon (Washington, D.C., 2003), 206.
3. See Genealogy III in my Conquest of Mexico.
4. See Medina, Descubrimiento, 238, fn. 4; and Antonio de Herrera, Historia general del mundo, del tiempo del señor rey don Felipe II el prudente (Madrid, 1601), Dec. 5, Bk. 10, ch. 14.
5. Medina, Descubrimiento, 42, fn. 68.
6. Gonzalo Pizarro in ibid., 249.
7. Gonzalo letter quoted in ibid., 56.
8. Fifty-three names can be found in Oviedo, 5: 237–38, but see Carvajal, 42, who speaks of fifty-seven men.
9. Medina, Descubrimiento, 71.
10. Ibid., 74.
11. Carvajal, in ibid., 227.
12. Ibid., 53.
13. Ibid., 55.
14. Carvajal, in ibid., 58.
15. Ibid., 69.
16. Ibid., 71.
17. John Hemming, The Amazon (London, 2009), 31.
18. Carvajal, in Medina, Descubrimiento, 73.
19. Ibid., 88.
20. Oviedo, 5: 394.
21. Carvajal, in Medina, Descubrimiento, 96.
22. Gonzalo Pizarro, quoted in ibid., 79.
23. Oviedo, 5: 373ff.
24. Medina, Descubrimiento, 250.
CHAPTER 28. ORELLANA AND NEW ANDALUSIA
1. Carvajal, in Medina, Descubrimiento, 97.
2. Oviedo, 5: 373–402.
3. AHN, Simancas, Estado, leg. 61, f. 19, quoted in Medina, Descubrimiento, 320.
4. Ibid., 128, fn. 180.
5. Ibid., 328.
6. Cadenas, Carlos I, 65.
7. Officials were named: Juan García de Samaniego, inspector; Juan de la Cuadra, keeper of accounts; Francisco de Ulloa, treasurer; Cristóbal Maldonado, chief constable; Vicente del Monte, revenue collector; while Fray Pablo de Torres would be inspector-general and have with him a secret package naming a succesor to Orellana if he were to die.
8. Medina, Descubrimiento, 326.
9. Ibid., 355–56.
10. Ibid., 336.
11. CDI, 42: 269.
CHAPTER 29. THE DEFEAT OF THE VICEROY
1. Garcilaso, 2: 951–52.
2. Ibid., 963.
3. Pedro Pizarro, 235.
4. Garcilaso, 2: 992; and commentary by Hemming, The Conquest, 268.
5. Garcilaso, 2: 970.
6. He apparently gave his wife the pearl known as La Peregrina, which eventually, via Mary Tudor, Philip II, Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon III, and the duke of Abercon, would be given by the actor Richard Burton to his wife, the actress Elizabeth
Taylor.
7. Garcilaso, 2: 996–1000.
8. Ibid., 1011.
9. Ibid.,1056, 1058.
10. José Puente Brunke, Encomiendas and encomenderos en el Perú (Seville, 1992), 141.
11. Lockhart, Spanish Peru, 185.
12. Bartolomé Martínez y Vela, cited in Stuart Stirling, The Last Conquistador (Stroud, 1999), 130.
CHAPTER 30. GONZALO AND LA GASCA
1. J. A. del Busto Duthurburu, Diccionário histórico biográfico (Lima, 1973), 1: 323.
2. Garcilaso, 2: 1008.
3. Ibid., 1073. See also G. Lohmann Villena, Las ideas jurídico-políticas en la rebelión de Gonzalo Pizarro (Valladolid, 1977).
4. Garcilaso, 2: 1083.
5. Lohmann, Las ideas, 11.
6. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 2: 399.
7. Gasca in Valencia is discussed in Teresa Canet Aparisi, “La justicia del emperador,” in Carlos V y la Quiebra, 2: 175ff.
8. Garcilaso, 2: 1084.
9. Instructions dated February 10, 1546, are in CDI, 23: 506–515. See also Schäfer, 2: 26.
10. Andagoya, Relación, 29.
11. Teodoro Hampe Martínez, Don Pedro de la Gasca, 1493–1567 (Lima, 1989), 106.
12. Garcilaso, 2: 1091.
13. Ibid., 1092.
14. Letter in ibid.,1094.
15. Garcilaso, 2: 1094–96.
16. Cited in Hampe, 125.
17. Garcilaso, 2: 1160.
18. AGI Justicia, leg. 451, no. 2, r. 10.
19. Cited in Hampe, 92.
20. Juan Pérez de Tudela, Documentos relativos a don Pedro de la Gasca y a Gonzalo Pizarro (Madrid, 1964), vol. 1, 368.
21. Ibid., 1: 375ff.
22. Ibid., 1: 119.
23. Garcilaso, 2: 1196–97.
24. Ibid., 1197.
25. See Marcel Bataillon, “La rébellion pizarriste, enfantement de l’Amérique espagnole,” Diogène 43, July–Sept. 1963; and “Les colons du Pérou contre Charles Quint 1544–1548,” Annales, May–June 1967, 479–94. Also Lohmann Villena, Las ideas, passim.
26. Varón Gabai, Francisco Pizarro and His Brothers, 149.
27. See CDI, 20: 487–537, for a list of about four hundred condemned supporters of Gonzalo, with their birthplaces mentioned. Most of those were punished by being sent to the galleys—many for life—and some were whipped. Almost all were exiled from Peru.
28. Polo de Ondegardo, El mundo de los Incas (Madrid, 1990), 46. See, too, Brian S. Bauer, The Sacred Landscape of the Inca: The Cusco Ceque System (Austin, Tex., 1998), 16–19, cit. D’Altroy, 156, who discusses the implications with rigor and intelligence.
29. Cited in Sir John Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World (New Haven, Conn., 2006), 89.
CHAPTER 31. VALDIVIA AND CHILE
1. Letter from Pedro de Valdivia to Charles V, quoted in Medina, Cartas, 56.
2. Medina, Cartas, 39–40.
3. See his Relación de la conquista del Perú (Madrid, 1962).
4. CDI, 23: 7. The key phrase was “sin que entreis en los límites y paraje de las islas y tierra que estan dadas en governación a otras personas.”
5. Medina, Cartas, 66.
6. CDI, 1, 3.
7. CDI, 2, 167.
8. Medina, Documentos inéditos, 8: 32; 11: 541.
9. Ibid., 22: 566.
10. Ida Vernon, Pedro de Valdivia, Conquistador of Chile (Austin, Tex., 1946), 71.
11. Tomás Thayer Ojeda, Valdivia y sus compañeros (Santiago de Chile, 1950), 31.
12. Vernon, Pedro de Valdivia, 73.
13. Letter of Valdivia to Charles V, September, 4, 1541.
14. Letter of Valdivia to Charles V, June 1, 1541.
15. Actas de historiadores de Chile, 1: 89–90.
16. “Actas del Cabildo,” in Actas de historiadores de Chile, 1: 89–90.
17. Medina, Cartas, 21.
18. Letter of Valdivia to Charles V, September 4, 1545.
CHAPTER 32. VALDIVIA’S CONSUMMATION
1. Medina, Cartas, 17.
2. Ibid., 28–29. There was a similar report of Cortés’s behavior in New Spain.
3. Ibid., 29.
4. Guillermo Pérez de Arce, “Santiago comienza una nueva vida,” in Guillermo Díaz y Mesa, Leyendas y episodios chilenos (Santiago de Chile, 1930), 300.
5. Medina, Documentos inéditos, 160.
6. Medina, Cartas, 33.
7. Ibid., 35.
8. CDHI, 25, 60.
9. Medina, Cartas, 49.
10. Ibid., 42–43.
11. Vernon, Pedro de Valdivia, 115.
12. Ibid., 116.
13. Medina, Cartas, 160.
14. Garcilaso, 2: 1092.
15. Díaz y Mesa, Leyendas y episodios, 92ff.
16. “Actas del Cabildo de Santiago,” in Historiadores de Chile, 1: 129.
17. Errazuriz, 2: 188.
18. “Actas del Cabildo,” in Historiadores de Chile, 1: 154.
19. Vernon, Pedro de Valdivia, 127.
20. Medina, Documentos inéditos, 8: 258–311.
21. Vernon, Pedro de Valdivia, 150; Medina, Cartas, 244.
22. Ibid., 159.
23. Letter to Charles V, October 15, 1550.
24. Medina, Cartas, 199, 147.
25. Ibid., 225.
26. Letter from Valdivia to Charles V, September 25, 1551, in Cartas, 223.
27. Medina, Cartas, 245.
28. Alonso Góngora de Marmolejo, Crónicas del reino de Chile (Madrid, 1960), 35.
29. Vernon, Pedro de Valdivia, 214.
CHAPTER 33. CAROLUS AFRICANUS
1. Erasmus, Consultatio de bello Turcis inferendo, 1530, in Desiderio Erasmus, Collected Works (Toronto, 2008).
2. Letter of May 6, 1543, in Fontán and Axer, 372.
3. CDHI, 10: 38–41.
4. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 4: 35.
5. Carande, 3: 69.
6. See Antoine-Marie Graziani, Un prince de la Renaissance (Paris, 2008).
7. Participating in the battles was the Dutch painter Jan Vermeyen, from whose sketches the famous tapestries in the Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna were later made.
8. Possibly this codex is that now known as the Codex Borgia. It became named as such in the eighteenth century when Cardinal Stefano Borgia owned it, though he did not really prize it. It is now in the Vatican library. Coming originally from Tlaxcala, it depicts the gods in control of the ritual calendar.
9. Wright, Early History of Cuba, 200.
10. Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 4: 483.
11. Pastor, 11: 242.
12. Ibid., 11: 76.
13. “Yo mismo con mis manos tomé en la Goleta estas cartas que tengo en la mano que las enviaba a Barbarroja en una fragata el rey de Francia en las cuales hay palabras de tan familiar amistad cuanto en ellas podra bien ver quien quisiere.”
14. Pérez, Carlos V (Madrid, 1999), 90.
15. Granvelle (Nicolas de Perrenot) became one of Charles’s most important advisers in the 1530s, with the title of consejero de estado after 1528.
16. Quoted in Ramón Menéndez Pidal, La lengua de Cristóbal Colón (Madrid, 1958), 66.
17. Ramón Menéndez Pidal, La idea imperial de Carlos V (Madrid, 1958), 31.
18. “Everything is well in Spain and we are awaiting the marvelous gold from the Indies.” Letter from Granvelle to Asti, May 30, 1536, quoted in Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 515.
19. Anne de Montmorency became constable of France in 1538. He had been brought up with King Francis I. The Montmorencys had had for centuries the title of “first barons of France.”
20. Charles to Nassau, Roeulx, and Praet, November 14, 1536, quoted in Fernández Álvarez, Corpus documental, 1: 515.
21. See Clive Griffin, Los Cromberger (Madrid, 1991), 117.
22. The cédula is dated May 21, 1534, and was reproduced by Alberto María Carreño in “La primera biblioteca del continente Americano” in Divulgación histórica, Mexico 4 (1943), 428.
23. Contract between Cromberger and Pablos signed June 12, 1539. See Griffin, Cromberger, 121.
24. Esteban Martín, who was in New Spain in 1538, also has a claim to be the first printer of the country, and he, too, seems to have been a protégé of Cromberger.
25. Griffin, Cromberger, 132.
26. Keniston, Cobos, 202. Nájera was the second duke of that title.
27. Pastor, 13: 298.
28. CDHI, 10: 448.
CHAPTER 34. THE INDIES FINANCE EUROPE
1. Ricard, Spiritual Conquest, 56. It was now that to avoid confusion between the Indian word papa, used constantly for priests, and the pope, Bishop Zumárraga ordered that the Latin papa should never be employed, only “pontifex.”
2. Pérez, Carlos V, 125: “Marchese, no necesitamos aquí secretario alguno.”
3. De rebus gestis, quoted in Alfred Morel-Fatio, Historiographie de Charles Quint (Paris, 1913), 61.
4. Brandi, 393.
5. Ibid., 414–15.
6. Schäfer, 1: 100.
7. Pérez, Carlos V, 84.
8. Schäfer, 1: 78.
9. Keniston, Cobos, 250.
10. See my Rivers of Gold, chapter 27.
11. Consuelo Varela, introduction to Las Casas, Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (Madrid, 1999).
12. Other items were: ordinary subsidies, 268,000 ducats; extraordinary subsidies, 125,867; maestrazgos, 152,000; clerical subsidies, 166,667; and Cruzada 125,900. See James D. Tracy, in Blockmans and Mont, The World of Charles V, 73.
13. Brandi, 465.
14. Keniston, Cobos, 272.
15. AGI, Escribanía de Cámara, leg. 1007, no. 19.
16. Schäfer, 1: 82.
17. CDI, 16: 397.
18. Wright, Early History of Cuba, 226; Bernal, Financiación, 12.
19. Keniston, Cobos, 264.
20. Brandi, 521.
21. Ibid., 523.
22. A summary of the discussion in the consejo de estado between the archbishop of Seville, Tavera, Alba, Valdés, Osorno, and Dr. Guevara, can be seen in Chabod, Carlos V y su imperio, 244–51.
23. Keniston, Cobos, 270.
24. Ibid., 300–301.
25. All these quotations derive from Brandi.
26. Ibid., 548.
