by Thomas; Kohn
One wing leads to “The Harbor,” since everyone who comes onstage from “foreign parts” (i.e., Eurybates, Agamemnon, Cassandra, and the captive Trojan women) has just arrived by ship. In addition, this play requires a trap door for the entrance of the Ghost of Thyestes.17
Dramaturgical Issues
ACT 1 (1–56)
Action unit: The Ghost of Thyestes, in monologue, states that he has returned to the Upper World in order to witness a deed even more barbarous than his consumption of his own children: the slaughter of his nephew, Agamemnon, by his own wife, Clytemnestra.
At line 1, the Ghost of Thyestes (actor A) appears onstage, alone.18 He is frightened (en horret animus, 5), and his body shakes with panic (et pavor membra excutit, 5). He identifies himself (fugio Thyestes, 4), but provides no indication of exactly why he has returned from the Land of the Dead. He further identifies the setting as the royal palace at Mycenae (video paternos immo fraternos lares, 6). The ensuing lines continue that identification, as Thyestes points to various things both physically and verbally by employing the demonstrative pronoun: hoc (7), hinc (8), hoc (9), hic, hic (11); and later on he addresses an offstage Aegisthus (Aegisthe, 49).19 He also establishes that it is dawn, and indeed that night has lasted too long (53–56). There is no clear statement concerning his position, but he is most likely on the stage floor. Thyestes is a ghost, and not a god. The earth would be his natural place, not the machina, and so extra comment would not be needed to explain where he is. Further, Sutton suggests that line 2 (adsum profundo Tartari emissus specu) “may indicate that the actor is emerging from this trap door.”20 This would confirm that the Ghost is standing on the stage, while also letting the audience know how he got there. After finishing his soliloquy at the end of line 56, Thyestes leaves. There is no indication of which exit he uses. If his reason for being here in the first place is so that he may observe the ensuing tragedy, or so that he may cause it by his very presence, then perhaps he goes into the palace through the center doors. He says, however, that a delay in the sunrise is his fault (Phoebum moramur, 56), implying that his presence on the surface world is bringing about an unacceptable disruption of the natural order, and so his departure from the stage is an attempt at a remedy. He should, then, return to the Underworld, and so exit the same way he came in, via the trap door.
FIRST CHORAL SONG (57–107)
The Chorus enters as its song begins at line 57.21 Assuming it consists of Mycenaean elders, it would be sensible for it to use the wing leading to the forum. The parodos is in anapests, the typical meter for Senecan entrance songs. After finishing at the end of line 107, the Chorus falls silent and withdraws to the scaenae frons.22
ACT 2 (108–309)
Action units: (1) Clytemnestra muses with herself as to whether she should carry out her plot to kill Agamemnon. (2) She then confers with her Nurse, who seems to be on the verge of convincing her to abandon the scheme. (3) Finally, Aegisthus, Clytemnestra's lover and Agamemnon's cousin, arrives and strengthens her resolve.
The entrance of Clytemnestra (actor B) is indicated when she begins to speak at line 108. She enters from the palace through the center doors. She is sluggish (segnis anime, 108), as well as uncertain as to what she should do (quid fluctuaris? 109). At line 125, the Nurse (actor C) speaks as she enters through the center doors. She identifies Clytemnestra (regina, 125), and states that she is quietly contemplating something (quid tacita versas, 126). This would indicate not only that Clytemnestra's previous speech was a soliloquy, unheard by the rest of the characters, but also that the Nurse was not previously aware of her charge's activities. Since she has only just now figured out what her mistress is up to, it makes more sense for the Nurse to enter separately, rather than entering with her at line 108.23 As Clytemnestra's silent reflections continue, the Nurse can tell that her spirit is inflamed (tumido animo, 127), and she gestures fiercely (feroces impetus geris, 127). Although the queen remains silent (ipsa sileas, 128), nevertheless pain is evident on her face (totus in vultu est dolor, 128).
Finally, at line 131, Clytemnestra responds to the Nurse, as if only now recognizing her presence. The queen explains that passion consumes her from within (flammae medullas et cor exurunt meum, 132), that she experiences fear mixed with pain (mixtus dolori timor, 133), that jealousy beats within her breast (invidia pulsat pectus, 134), and that lust oppresses her spirit (animum iugo premit cupido, 134–35). Nevertheless, shame, although exhausted by the effort of restraining her, still tries to assert itself (fessus quidem et deiectus et pessumdatus pudor rebellat, 137–38). Dialogue between Clytemnestra and the Nurse, rapid-fire but with no midline interruptions, ensues (145–61), followed by monologues from Clytemnestra (162–202) and the Nurse (203–25).
At line 226, Aegisthus (actor A) speaks, and so must enter through the center doors. The Nurse and Clytemnestra would have been standing center stage as they talked. Aegisthus should barge between them, taking the Nurse's place and pushing her to the side. The Nurse does not speak again, and so Sutton has her exit after her final words;24 but the scene is much more effective if the audience can actually see Clytemnestra physically caught between the voices of propriety and viricide. Although his entrance was unannounced, Aegisthus identifies himself (Aegisthe, 233). By using the vocative, he shows that the previous eight lines have been a soliloquy, meant to strengthen his own courage, and not that of Clytemnestra, as might be expected given what she and the Nurse have been talking about. At last, Aegisthus addresses Clytemnestra (tu, Leda sata, 234), identifying her more precisely than did the Nurse with regina (125). The queen is pale and her cheeks tremble (trementis circuit pallor genas, 237). She has a logy, drooping, glassy-eyed expression (iacensque vultu languido optutus stupet, 238). At line 239, dialogue begins, starting with an alternation of short speeches, eventually becoming shorter exchanges, before reverting back to short speeches; this section contains one midline interruption, as the queen responds to her lover's urgent demand (293). Aegisthus seems to be successfully rousing up the anger in Clytemnestra (iramque flammis iam residentem incitas, 261); nevertheless, her previous shame revives itself (surgit residuus pristinae mentis pudor, 288). His frustration is apparent; he both uses a charming and eloquent tone of voice (voce blandiloqua, 289), but is also shouting (quid obstrepis? 289). The act ends as Clytemnestra announces her exit and that of Aegisthus (secede mecum, 308), through the center doors, following line 309. The Nurse trails after them.
SECOND CHORAL SONG (310–87)
The Chorus steps forward at line 310 and begins to sing (canite, 310) in anapests.
ACT 3 (388–588)
Action units: (1) Eurybates, Agamemnon's herald, arrives. (2) Clytemnestra rejoices and asks Eurybates for the full story. (3) He tells Clytemnestra about the storms that racked the fleet. (4) Clytemnestra is unsure how to react.
The Chorus, having concluded its song, reverts to trimeter at line 388, in order to announce the arrival of actor A as a visibly excited soldier (sed ecce! concitus miles, 388), later identified as Eurybates (Eurybates adest, 391).25 He comes in via the wing leading to the harbor, and uses a giant pace (vasto gradu, 388). Tarrant takes this as “[a] sign of haste,” along with concitus and the ensuing properat (389).26 But the phrase suggests a long-legged gait that is not fast as much as distance consuming. It must imply that the man is tall, as well as being a pun with his name: Eurybates, Greek for “the Far-Goer.” He is clearly happy (manifesta signa laetitiae ferens, 389), possibly indicating that he is smiling, perhaps with a joyful bounce in his step. But the following line identifies specifically the clear sign that the Chorus is referring to: a victory wreath on the tip of his spear (hasta summo lauream ferro gerit, 390). The Chorus finishes its announcement at the end of line 391, and exits.27 Calder has the Chorus go out through the center doors into the palace as Clytemnestra enters at the end of Eurybates’ first speech (392–96).28 This is undesirable for several reasons. It would be awkward for the Chorus and actor B to be using the same entranc
e at the same time, going in opposite directions. Further, Clytemnestra's first words indicate that she heard Eurybates’ good news (felix ad aures nuntius venit meas, 397). Therefore, she must have been onstage in time to hear him, and so must enter as he begins to speak.29 Similarly, the Chorus, understanding that the herald's arrival portends the imminent return of Agamemnon, exits after its final words. It makes little sense, however, for the Chorus to go into the palace, as it has previously shown no direct connection to the royal family. Instead, it is more reasonable that it goes out the way Eurybates has just come in, through the wing leading to the harbor, in order to greet the long-absent Agamemnon.
By line 392, Eurybates has reached center stage and begins to speak, praying to the gods with outstretched arms (supplex adoro, 394), and announcing the arrival of Agamemnon (395–96). Clytemnestra (actor B), who must have entered from the center doors already, responds. The queen addresses Eurybates directly, asking him questions about the voyage from Troy (398–99). Although he answers, throughout the scene he is reluctant to reveal the unpleasant news.30 In celebration of her husband's safe return, Clytemnestra proposes to conduct sacrifices (sacris colamus prosperum diem, 402). It is possible that mute attendants obey her; but much like the unfulfilled rites described by the Chorus in its second song, these are probably also not carried out. Finally, she commands Eurybates to tell the story (exprome! 419).
At line 421, Eurybates takes a short pause, and possibly a deep breath, before beginning his vivid account of the storms.31 He continues, uninterrupted by Clytemnestra, until concluding his report at line 578. After this, he does not speak again, nor does Clytemnestra address him. It makes best sense that he leave, but it is unclear where would he go. He has no reason for exiting into the palace. Of all the characters in this play, he is the one who would sensibly go to town, having been away for so long. And yet, as a soldier and herald of Agamemnon, it would make most sense that he go back to his commander, perhaps to report what he saw or how he and his news were received, perhaps simply to get further orders. Thus, he should exit through the wing leading to the harbor.
Another short pause occurs before Clytemnestra speaks, to herself, beginning at line 579, uncertain whether to rejoice or lament.32 She once again calls for public displays of rejoicing and thanksgiving (583–85); and again, the rites are not performed. Amid the uncertainty, a Chorus of Trojan women enters (sed ecce! turba tristis incomptae comas Iliades adsunt, 586–87), along with a young woman played by actor C (quas super celso gradu effrena Phoebas entheas laurus quatit, 587–88). Although she is not named until later (Cassandra, 691), she is obviously Cassandra, since she is a priestess of Apollo and in the company of the captive Trojan women. She is taller than her companions, walks quickly, is frenzied, and brandishes laurel wreaths. After announcing the arrival of her husband's concubine and other slaves, Clytemnestra exits into the center doors at the end of line 588.
THIRD CHORAL SONG (589–658)
The Chorus begins to sing in cantica polymetra at line 589, before switching to anapests at line 637. At 655, it weeps (flent).33
ACT 4 (659–807)
Action units: (1) The Chorus of Trojan women interacts with the raving Cassandra. (2) At last, Agamemnon enters. (3) He has a brief exchange with Cassandra, (4) before going to the palace and his death.
With her first words, Cassandra orders the Chorus to stop crying (cohibete lacrimas, 659), and instead to express its grief with groans (lugete gemitu, 661).34 Both Cassandra and the Chorus use several different meters. The former mostly employs iambic trimeters (659–63, 695–709, 720–58), while the latter first reverts to anapests (664–92), before switching to trimeter (693–94 and 710–19). At the end of the episode, Cassandra, in her madness, lapses into iambic dimeter (759–74) 35 The metrical change indicates that Cassandra either chants or sings, and probably moves rhythmically, perhaps even breaking into dance. Finally, the Chorus concludes the scene in trimeter (775–81). The shifts show that, on the one hand, the Chorus is becoming more and more involved in the action as an active participant, while on the other Cassandra becomes more and more distant as Apollo takes control of her.
This gradual possession can also be seen in her actions. First she tears the sacred fillets off of her head (sed cur sacratas deripis capiti infulas? 693). Later, she suddenly goes silent and her cheeks grow pale (silet repente Phoebas et pallor genas, 710). Her whole body shakes violently (creberque totum possidet corpus tremor, 711), and both her headbands and her hair itself stand straight up (stetere vittae, mollis horrescit coma, 712). A groaning comes from deep within her (anhela corda murmure incluso fremunt, 713). Her eyes, no longer seeing properly, droop (incerta nutant lumina, 714). In fact, her eyeballs roll back in their sockets, and then suddenly snap back (versi retro torquentur oculi, 714–15); but once they have returned to normal, they become fixed (rursus immoti rigent, 715). At one point, she raises her head high, higher than usual, and walks proudly (nunc levat in auras altior solito caput graditurque celsa, 716–17); at another point, she hesitantly opens her mouth, as it she were about to say something unpleasant (nunc reluctantantis parat reserare fauces, 717–18), ultimately clamping her mouth shut (verba nunc clauso male custodit ore maenas, 718–19),36 lest evil words escape. At last, Cassandra speaks for herself, informing the observers that some new madness excites her (me furoris incitam stimulis novi, 720), and that flames of passion are fixed within her (flammas pectori infixas meo, 723). She hallucinates (ubi sum? 726), seeing the Furies (instant sorores squalidae, 759), among other things.37 Finally, Cassandra collapses, falling forward on bended knees (caditque flexo genu, 776), as various Chorus members help her up (relevemus artus, 778).38
At line 779, Agamemnon (actor A) enters through the wing leading to the harbor (Agamemnon adit, 779). He wears a laurel wreath, symbolizing his victory at Troy (victrice lauru cinctus, 779),39 and he is accompanied by mute attendants. Cassandra, not Clytemnestra, goes to him (et festa coniunx obvios illi tulit gressus reditque iuncta concordi gradu, 780–81), 40 and the two of them reach center stage together. Once they get there, the Chorus withdraws to the scaenae frons. Agamemnon speaks at line 782. At line 786, Cassandra once again faints, apparently suffering some kind of epileptic fit: her body trembles and her head sways (quid ista vates corpus effusa ac tremens dubia labat cervice? 786–87). Sutton suggests that she has been lying unconscious since lines 775–7741 This is unlikely for several reasons. First, the Chorus has already helped her up (778). Second, Cassandra met Agamemnon upon his entrance. Third, it would be odd for Agamemnon to speak for four lines before noticing her lying at his feet. Finally, the Chorus noted the mercurial nature that divine possession imposed upon her, at one moment wanting to talk, and then not (716–19). This is another manifestation of that uncertainty, as Cassandra repeatedly faints, recovers, and then faints again. Agamemnon orders his silent attendants to lift the poor girl (famuli, attollite, 787) and to revive her spirits with cold water (refovete gelido latice, 788), although it is uncertain whether he means for them to splash water in Cassandra's face, or if she is to have a beverage.42 Whatever they do seems successful, as she comes around (iam recipit diem, 788) with eyes still drooping (marcente visu, 789).
Agamemnon addresses Cassandra, telling her to regain her senses (suscita sensus tuos, 789). She responds in the middle of line 791; indeed, Agamemnon begins all of the ensuing lines of dialogue (792–99), with Cassandra completing them. He suggests that they should pray at the altars (veneremur aras, 792), especially to Jupiter (Iovem precemur pariter, 793); but, like the Chorus and Clytemnestra before him, he is prevented from carrying out the specified rites. He gestures, pointing to his city, Mycenae (hic Troia non est, 795). Fitch suggests that as she replies (ubi Helena est, Troiam puta, 795), “Cassandra glances at Clytemnestra,” and means that the queen of Mycenae is equally as destructive as her sister.43 This interpretation assumes that Clytemnestra is onstage, which I have argued against above and elsewhere. There are, however, other possibili
ties: Cassandra answers Agamemnon's gesture by pointing to the palace and the offstage Clytemnestra. Cassandra hallucinates that Helen is standing before her. Or Cassandra is referring to the fact that Helen is, by now, in Sparta (i.e., “Helen is in Greece; therefore, Greece is Troy”). Finally, Agamemnon loses his patience, puts an end to the dialogue, and tells his attendants to restrain Cassandra (hanc fida famuli turba…retinete, 800–801), who is trying to shake off the effects of divine possession (excutiat deum, 800) and is possessed by a powerless rage (impotens furor, 801). He is at last able to pray, specifically to Jupiter and Juno (at te, pater! 802 and Argolica Juno, 806). He intends to pursue further rites (colam, 807), but unfortunately he will not get the chance. Having finished his lines, Agamemnon (actor A) exits into the palace, leaving Cassandra (actor C) behind.44
FOURTH CHORAL SONG (808–66)
The Chorus of Trojan women steps forward and sings in canticum polymetrum,45 beginning at line 808 and concluding at line 866. After that, it does not sing or speak again. Nobody addresses it. And yet it would be strange for captive slaves to exit without instruction. Instead, it withdraws to the scaenae frons and silently watches the rest of the play.46
ACT 5 (867–1012)
Action units: (1) Cassandra describes the death of Agamemnon as it occurs offstage. (2) Electra entrusts her silent brother, Orestes to their uncle, Strophius, who happens to be passing by with his own unspeaking son, Pylades. (3) Clytemnestra demands the location of Orestes from Electra, who refuses to tell. (4) Aegisthus responds to the screams of the queen, commanding guards to imprison Electra in a cave outside of the city. (5) Finally, Clytemnestra orders the still present Cassandra to be dragged to her death in the palace.
