by Thomas; Kohn
In addition, Seneca makes frequent use of mute actors in this play. In act 1, Hecuba addresses Cassandra. Her use of the vocative, as well as the second-person adjective (61), indicate the girl's physical presence.3 The Trojan princess must enter with her mother at the beginning of the act and stay with her until its end. Similarly, while Pyrrhus, Agamemnon, and Calchas discuss the impending sacrifice of Polyxena in act 2, the seer addresses the girl, again using the vocative and the second-person adjective (203), meaning that she must come on with the Greek leaders. In act 3, while the Old Servant and Andromache search for a place to hide her son, he is by her side until he seeks sanctuary in his father's tomb. He is clearly present, not only because Andromache frequently addresses him,4 but also since the manuscripts identify him as a participant in the act. In fact, the boy speaks two words (miserere, mater! 792) long after the entrance of Ulixes, thus creating a potential violation of the three-actor rule. It is possible that the Old Man exits sometime after his last words (517–18); but this is doubtful, as there is no good reason for him to leave, and it fits with Senecan practice to have characters silently observe dialogue between two others. In addition, Sutton shows that among the “sound dramaturgical principles” followed by Seneca is a tendency to “have the same character played by the same actor.”5 At the beginning of the act, Astyanax would have been portrayed by a mute actor, while two speaking actors played Andromache and the Old Man. The boy exits into the tomb before the third actor comes on as Ulixes. For Astyanax to actually speak, the Old Man would have to exit, and that actor would then return as the boy. Thus, two different performers would portray Hector's son in the very same episode. It would be both awkward and odd for the playwright to break with his usual practice here.6 Another possibility would be for the actor portraying the Old Man to exit immediately after line 518, and return as Ulixes at line 522. A four-line turnaround would certainly be possible, especially since the Old Man would exit into the same wing that Ulixes enters from. The third actor, then, could have been playing Astyanax from his initial appearance with Andromache at 409. But again, this seems like an awfully complicated maneuver, just to allow the child to speak two words. Instead, it is more probable that throughout the episode, Astyanax is portrayed by a mute actor. When he seems to speak, it is another actor, either onstage or off, performing a sort of ventriloquist act.7 In act 4, an unusual dumb-show occurs. Polyxena is once again onstage, sitting silently as Helen prepares her for her “marriage” to Achilles. Then, at 999, Pyrrhus enters to take the girl away. He also does not speak. This could be seen as a violation of Sutton's rule that the same character should always be portrayed by the same actor; but changing between acts is far less jarring than switching a role in the middle of an episode, as would be required for Astyanax, or replacing a character already onstage, as Megara in the Hercules Furens. Only act 5 lacks a mute character, although both Polyxena and Astyanax are present by means of the Messenger's description of their heroic deaths. Throughout the play, three of the four mute characters are powerless Trojan captives facing death.8 By act 5, however, Polyxena and Astyanax have empowered themselves by taking their fates into their own hands and facing their destruction bravely. The silent ones have gained voice, and so no unspeaking characters are necessary. Pyrrhus in act 4 is more problematic. But during his appearance in act 2, he is portrayed as merely following the orders of his deceased father; and so he is just as helpless because of the demise of his parent as the daughters of Priam and the son of Hector.
The identity of the Chorus is unusually clear,9 just as remarkable as its level of participation in the play itself.10 Hecuba identifies it as her band of captives (turba captivae mea, 63, and also agnosco Troada turbam, 95), that is, her Trojan companions in captivity. Although the A family of manuscripts identifies them as men (Chorus troianorum, before line 1), Hecuba's undisputed use of captivae definitely marks them as women.11 And as will be seen, throughout all the changes in this tragedy, the Chorus remains the one constant that ties everything together.
The exact setting of this play is uncertain,12 but a few things are clear. Hecuba explicitly states in her opening monologue that the ruins of Troy are nearby (me videat et te, Troia, 4, and en alta muri decora congestis iacent tectis adusti, 15–16). Act 3 definitely takes place in front of the tomb of Hector, with the center doors representing the tomb itself. Finally, the Messenger, during his description of the offstage death of Astyanax in act 5, says that an Achaean soldier was sitting on the tomb of Hector (atque aliquis—nefas!—tumulo ferus spectator Hectoreo sedet, 1086–87), indicating that the action of the play has shifted. I think it is likely that acts 1, 2, and 3 have different locations, with acts 4 and 5 returning to the same place as act 1.13 My supposition is that act 1 is set in front of the slave huts, act 2 in the camp of the Achaeans, act 3 before Hector's tomb, and acts 4 and 5 back at the slave huts. Act 2 consists of a debate between Pyrrhus and Agamemnon as to whether Polyxena should be sacrificed on the tomb of Achilles, a debate bookended by monologues by Talthybius and Calchas. It is certainly possible that this argument occurs among the huts of the captive women. But it seems more sensible to shift it to the camp of the Achaeans. It is certainly less cruel than if the Achaeans go from their own tents to those of their captives for the sole purpose of discussing the fate of those captives. The action of the final two acts returns to the tents of the captive women, as they discuss their final fates.
The center doors allow Astyanax entrance to and exit from the tomb of Hector and are used only in act 3. One wing leads to other places around the ruins of Troy and is used for most of the entrances and exits throughout the play; the other wing leads to the ships of the Achaeans and is only used at the end of the drama by the Messenger, Hecuba, Andromache, and the Chorus. Throughout the tragedy, the Trojans look toward this wing with dread and apprehension, while the Achaeans regard it with hope and longing.
Dramaturgical Issues
ACT 1 (1–66)
Action unit: Hecuba and a Chorus of Trojan Women mourn and bemoan the destruction of Troy; their hair-tearing and breast-beating flows into the next episode.
At line 1, Hecuba enters via the wing leading from the ruins of the city with the Chorus14 and a silent Cassandra, whose presence is indicated by the use of the vocative (Cassandra, 61), along with the second-person possessive adjective (tuos, 61), as well as her mention at line 37 (Cassandram).15 Hecuba gives no motivation for her entrance. She simply comes on and begins to talk. She speaks for a long time before finally identifying herself (Hecuba vidi, 36),16 and portraying herself as an old woman who has lived too long (vivax senectus, 42);17 her age should be apparent in both her movements and vocal quality, as well as her clothing. She directly addresses Troy, using the second-person pronoun and vocative (me videat et te, Troia, 4), thus indicating the general setting of the play: the ruins of the city. Hecuba also indicates an overturned pillar (columen eversum occidit, 6), surely a poetic reference to the destruction of Ilium, but also a hint that an overturned pillar may be painted on the scaenae frons, or perhaps be a piece of the set. She continues to describe the scene (en alta muri decora congestis iacent tectis adusti, 15–16), again possibly commenting on the decoration of the scaenae frons, but definitely telling the audience what it should be seeing, much like Prologue in Shakespeare's Henry V; besides the overturned walls and smoking buildings, a dense cloud of smoke covers the city, even though it is day (1921). Hecuba prays (testor, 28), with appropriate gestures. Meanwhile, the Chorus has apparently been lamenting quietly since the start of the play, but evidently has fallen silent (lamenta cessant? 63). Therefore, Hecuba commands the women to beat their breasts (ferite palmis pectora, 64), make lamentations (planctus date, 64), and perform funeral rites for Troy (iusta Troiae facite, 65). The beat should be so loud and strong as to make Ida resound (sonet fatalis Ide, 65–66), and coincides with the ictus of the ensuing anapests.
FIRST CHORAL SONG (67–163)
At line 67, the Chorus moves to cente
r stage from its previous position behind Hecuba and near the scaenae frons. It sings in anapests, a common meter for the Senecan Chorus, especially in the parados.18 It is not new to tears (non lacrimisque novum, 67), which would be reflected in its clothing: disheveled, torn, filthy. Nevertheless, it obeys Hecuba's commands to lament (ite ad planctus, 79). The former queen is established as the leader of the Chorus' bewailing;19 she raises her hand, as a signal for the mourning to begin (miseramque leva, regina, manum, 80). In fact, she takes part in the choral song starting at line 83, maintaining its anapestic meter, as she continues to issue commands to the Chorus. It is to undo its hair (solvite crinem, 84), which is filthy and coated with dust (tepido Troiae pulvere turpes, 86), and allow it to flow down the neck (per colla fluant maesta capilli, 85).20 Further, it should gather up the rubble of Troy (complete manus, 102), as if in that way it will be able to take part of the city with it always. Finally, the women are to stretch out their arms and uncover them (paret exertos turba lacertos, 87), undo their clothing all the way down to the abdomen (veste remissa substringe sinus uteroque tenus pateant artus, 88–89), and use their robes as a sort of belt or sash to tie the loosened garments in place (cingat tunicas palla solutas, 92), so that their hands might be free for the ensuing breast-beating. Even though Hecuba is pleased by their actions (placet hic habitus. placet, 95), she hopes they will surpass their previous efforts in lamenting (iterum luctus redeant veteres, solitum flendi vincite morem, 96–97).
The Chorus, beginning at line 99, states that it has done what Hecuba commanded, but not exactly as ordered. Everyone has let down her hair (solvimus omnes crinem, 99 and coma demissa est libera nodo, 100); however it is not filthy, but only torn (lacerum multo funere, 99). The Chorus has disrobed (cadit ex umeris vestis apertis imumque tegit suffulta latus, 104–5) and prepares for the breast-beating (iam nuda vocant pectora dextras, 106). And in a new detail, hot ashes bespatter their faces (sparsitque cinis fervidus ora, 101). At line 117, Hecuba takes over, describing the beating. The women use their right hand to beat their upper arms (nostra ferit dextra lacertos, 117), their shoulders (umeros ferit sanguineos, 118), and their heads (nostra caput dextera pulsat, 119). In addition, they have torn, mutilated, and slapped their breasts (ubera palmis laniata patent, 120). As a result, bloody scars ooze, rupture, and fester (fluat et multo sanguine manet rupta cicatrix, 121–23), all while the women continue to weep (fundite fletus, 131). A fair degree of theatrical realism is possible for these descriptions. The hair and clothing could be unbound and dirt could be smeared. Breasts could be beaten, and weeping could be portrayed. But it is doubtful that the Chorus members are actually inflicting real wounds upon themselves. It is possible to use some kind of makeup or prosthetic effect. But I think it more likely, in a theater of convention, that the audience would simply believe that the women are physically scarred just because they say that they are. At line 132, the Chorus takes up the song from Hecuba, as the breast-beating and weeping continue (accipe planctus, 132, accipe fletus, 133, and lacrimas flectite vestras, 142). Hecuba resumes singing at line 142, and commands her companions to call the dead king, Priam, happy (“felix Priamus” dicite cunctae, 145). Using the exact word order, and three out four identical words with a synonym (“felix Priamus” dicimus omnes, 156), they obey. The former queen does not speak again until act 4, and the actor will be needed. It is sensible, then, for her to exit after line 156, using the wing leading to the ruins of Troy, once she has heard the Chorus carry out her last order. The mute Cassandra leaves with her.
ACT 2 (164–370)
Action units: (1) Talthybius announces that the ghost of Achilles demands the sacrifice. (2) Pyrrhus and Agamemnon debate whether or not to obey the ghost's wishes. (3) Calchas sides with Achilles and Pyrrhus, adding that Astyanax must also be killed before the Achaeans will be able to return home.
At line 164, Talthybius, the herald of Agamemnon, enters via the wing leading to the ruins of Troy, apparently talking to himself. Not only are both his entrance and his exit unannounced, but he is also identified only by the character heading in the manuscripts; this identification, however, as well as the parallel of Euripides' Troades, is enough for modern scholars.21 The absence of Hecuba and the presence of the Greek messenger indicate that the setting has changed to the tents of the Achaeans.22 At lines 166–67, the Chorus overhears Talthybius and responds, speaking within an episode and in iambic trimeter for the only time in this play. Although he appears to answer its questions, it does not subsequently react to him in any way, and in fact does not seem aware of the impending sacrifice of Polyxena in act 4. So, following its rhetorically necessary questions, the Chorus withdraws, both emotionally and physically, back to the scaenae frons, where it keens softly and pays no attention to the events unfolding in front of it.23 The herald must exit through the wing leading to the ruins of Troy following line 202, since there is no good reason for him to remain onstage any longer once he finishes his monologue, and since the actor is needed to portray Calchas at line 360. It is interesting, significant, and ironic that the last word spoken by Talthybius is chorus (202), as the Chorus is the only other entity that has been present for his soliloquy. The technique calls to mind Oedipus 81, where Oedipus' last word before Jocasta's entrance and monologue is parentes. The audience, then, could reasonably expect another song. But Seneca confounds that expectation, in order to show the mental state of the captive Trojan women. The Chorus, clearly in shock and mourning, does not sing, unless to continue softly lamenting.
There is a short pause before Pyrrhus and Agamemnon enter with a silent Polyxena at line 203. They come in from the wing leading to the ruins of Troy, and walk to center stage. The entrance is not announced in any way, except that Pyrrhus begins to talk, trying to convince his companion that Achilles deserves a sacrificial bride. The speaker is not identified for nearly thirty lines (iter est Achillis; sic meus venit pater, 232), while Agamemnon's identity is clear only when Pyrrhus refers to the sacrifice of Iphigenia at lines 248–49. Manuscript family E states that Pyrrhus, Agamemnon, and Calchas all enter here, but that would give actor B very little time to change, as well as nothing to do for 150 lines. More importantly, Agamemnon summons Calchas later on (potius interpres deum Calchas vocetur, 351–52). Thus, manuscript family A, which lists only Pyrrhus and Agamemnon, must be correct. Calchas, upon his entrance, addresses Polyxena (nobilior tuo, Polyxene, cruore debetur cruor, 366–67), implying she is onstage. She could come on with the seer at 353; but it would be quite powerful to have the mute girl standing in full view while Pyrrhus and Agamemnon debate her fate. In addition, it matches well with the onstage presence of a silent Cassandra in act 1, and a nearly silent Astyanax in act 3. At line 250, Agamemnon replies to Pyrrhus' monologue with his own. The two men then engage in the first true dialogue of the play, starting at line 292, with frequent midline interruptions. At one point, Pyrrhus gestures with his right hand (hac dextra, 306). Finally, Agamemnon summons Calchas (potius interpres deum Calchas vocetur, 351–52).
After another brief pause, Calchas enters at line 353 via the wing leading from the ruins of Troy. Agamemnon addresses him directly, using the vocative (Calchas, 359), as well as the second-person pronoun and the singular imperative. The seer delivers his own short monologue (360–70). Upon its conclusion, Calchas, Pyrrhus, Agamemnon, and Polyxena go out through the wing leading to the ruins of Troy.
SECOND CHORAL SONG (371–408)
At line 371, the Chorus steps forward and sings in lesser asclepiadeans.24 There are no indications of stage business during the song, although the Chorus undoubtedly moves to the rhythm and continues its self-mutilation. Following the song, the Chorus withdraws back to the scaenae frons at line 408.25
ACT 3 (409–813)
Action units: (1) Andromache hides Astyanax in the tomb of Hector. (2) Ulixes demands to know where he is. (3) Andromache ultimately surrenders the boy.
At line 409, Andromache enters, with an Old Servant and a silent Astyanax, via the wing
leading to the ruins of Troy. The Old Man is not identified at all, and the woman and child only when the ghost of Hector refers to them as wife and child (natum eripe, o fida coniunx, 452–53).26 The setting, however, is clearly marked as Hector's tomb (quaesivi Hectorem, 459, and est tumulus ingens, 483). Andromache states that she would follow her husband to the land of the dead, if her son were not keeping her alive by needing her protection (coniugem sequerer meum, nisi hic teneret, 418–19). Ironically, however, she has indeed pursued Hector by coming here to his tomb. She addresses Astyanax (o nate, 461), confirming that he is onstage, and gestures toward him repeatedly (hic at 419, 420, 422). She goes on to say that he has the same appearance, bearing, build, and so on, as Hector.27 She also addresses the Chorus (maesta Phrygiae turba, 409), indicating that it is still present, that it still consists of captive Trojan women, and that it shows signs of mourning: torn hair (laceratis comas, 409), beaten breasts (miserumque tunsae pectus, 410), and tear-stained cheeks (effuso genas fletu, 410–11). At line 426, the Old Man speaks, engaging Andromache in dialogue. Both are terrified, as is signaled by several midline interruptions, and she drips with cold sweat (sudor per artus frigidus totos cadit, 487). Finally, Andromache sends Astyanax into the tomb (succede tumulo, 503), but he is frightened and comes back (nate, quid retro fugis? 503). In the end, however, he exits through the center doors (claustra commissum tegunt, 512) per his mother's command. That having been accomplished, the Old Man and Andromache prepare to leave (procul hinc recede teque diversam amove, 514, and referamus hinc alio pedem, 516), even though she continues to lament (cohibe parumper ora questusque opprime, 517). But it is too late. The Old Man sees Ulixes approaching (gressus nefandos dux Cephallanum admovet, 518) via the wing leading to the ruins of Troy. After this, the Old Man does not speak again. It is possible that he exits; but it accomplishes nothing to have him leave. Indeed, it is more likely that he stays, following the Senecan practice of having a third character remain to observe dialogue in silence.28
