by Thomas; Kohn
21. Davis (1993) 32, agrees that it enters at this point.
22. Cf. Davis (1993) 32, who believes that “the events of Act 2 require secrecy and yet Clytemnestra makes no attempt to secure the chorus-members' silence. We can legitimately infer the chorus-members are absent.” This is, however, demanding an unnecessary realism.
23. Compare with Jocasta in the first act of the Oedipus, who enters with her husband, listening silently to him for eighty-one lines. Sutton (1986) 54 does not comment on the entrance of the Nurse, except to point out that she is never identified.
24. Sutton (1986) 54.
25. The Messenger who announces Agamemnon's arrival in Aeschylus' Agamemnon is not named. But Seneca does not pull the name Eurybates out of thin air. Homer applies it to one of the companions of Odysseus (Il. 1.319, 2.184, 9.170 and Od. 10.246).
26. Tarrant (1976) ad 408.
27. Davis (1993) 23, thinks that Eurybates' vota superis solvite (394) and Clytemnestra's commands to give thanks to the gods at 583–85 are addressed to the Chorus. It is more sensible, however, to see these as still more appeals for religious behavior, like those found in the second choral passage, neither directed toward anyone in particular, nor ever actually performed.
28. Calder (1975) 34.
29. Sutton (1986) 54 suggests an entrance “at or slightly after 392a.”
30. Much like Creon and Phorbas the Shepherd throughout the Oedipus.
31. Cf. Creon at Oedipus 217. Among the techniques Eurybates uses to enliven the story is the direct quotation of the sailors (517–26) and Ajax the Lesser (545–52).
32. Cf. the gods in the Oedipus, who according to Tiresias wish both to conceal their secrets and to make them plain (332–33).
33. This is also the constant activity of the Chorus of Trojan women in the Troades.
34. Tarrant (1976) ad 659 offers another plausible interpretation.
35. This meter is common in Roman comedy, but only occurs in Senecan tragedy in the Medea, and there in stanzaic patterns; see Rosenmeyer, Ostwald, and Halporn (1963) 84–86.
36. Like Medea (Medea 806, 849), she is compared to a raving Maenad.
37. Cf. Juno and Hercules in the HF.
38. Cf. Sutton (1986) 55, who believes the Chorus does not complete this action, being “interrupted by the triumphal entrance of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.”
39. Cf. lines 390 and 588, where both Eurybates and Cassandra are also said to be bearing laurel. This would seem to be an emblem of Agamemnon's company.
40. See the above discussion of the distribution of roles.
41. Sutton (1986) 55.
42. Tarrant (1976) ad 788 states that there are no parallels to this action in tragedy, either Greek or Roman, although there are several examples from comedy: Aristophanes, Wasps 995ff., Menander, Sikyonioi 364, Plautus, Miles Gloriosus 1332, Trinummus 1091, and Truculentus 306. In all but the last example, one character simply tells another to go get some water with no mention of what should be done with it. In the Truculentus, there are references both to drinking and to besprinkling.
43. Fitch (2004) 192–93.
44. Cf. Sutton (1986) 54, who posits that the attendants actually take Cassandra offstage at this point, along with the Chorus of Trojan women. In this scenario, she reenters, alone, at 867. This is not only awkward and unlikely, but it leads to the unnecessary confusion concerning which Chorus performs the fourth choral song, as well as the possible needless reentry of the Chorus of Mycenaeans.
45. Cf. Tarrant (1976) 324 and Davis (1993) 57.
46. So also Davis (1993) 37.
47. Cf. the Medea 1022–25, where the title character rides out in the machina, decorated to look like the chariot of the Sun. The vital difference is that Medea flies away with the help of the gods, while Strophius et alii are mortals and must stick to the ground. Thus, the Medea needs the machina, while here in the Agamemnon the exostra is employed.
48. Cf. the representation of the sacrificial animals during the extispicium in the Oedipus.
49. Cf. the laurels worn by Eurybates (390), Cassandra (588), and Agamemnon (799).
50. Fitch (2004).
51. As also in the Hercules Furens (918ff.). See above chapter 1 and Sutton (1986) appendix A.
52. Or as Iphigenia was slaughtered at Aulis (162–73).
53. Compare to Oedipus 707, where Creon suffers the same fate.
54. See Gantz (1993) 664–76, as well as Macintosh et al. (2005).
55. I mean here that we do not know of many plays dedicated to Agamemnon's death. Certainly, both Sophocles and Euripides referred to the story frequently, for example in their respective Electra plays; see Gantz (1993) 675.
56. See Boyle (2006) 30–33.
57. Tarrant (1976) 13.
58. Tarrant (1976) 10.
59. Gantz (1993) 673.
Chapter 4
1. Sutton (1986) 30 has Phaedra as a character in act 4. He must envision her standing silently while listening to the Messenger's account.
2. Sutton (1986) 30, without explanation, has the Messenger present for act 5.
3. See also Davis (1993) 52–54. He further rehearses the arguments that the Chorus consists of men (certain masculine forms used toward itself, and misogynistic sentiments) or of women (the presence of the feminine CHORUS GRESSAE in certain manuscripts), himself leaning toward the latter. Neither line of reasoning is particularly persuasive.
4. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 703 support this idea when they suggest that the huntsmen exit and later return as the Chorus; see also Capps (1895).
5. Kragdund (1999) 239–43.
6. Just as he does in the Hercules Furens.
7. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 705.
8. Fitch (2002) 479, note 19; see also Sutton (1986) 18.
9. Hippolytus' speech and the dialogue between Phaedra and the Nurse are generally considered parts of the same act because there is no intervening choral song. Cf. Boyle (1987) 134 and Davis (1993) 28–31, who both regard the two sections as two separate acts.
10. Sutton (1986) 34.
11. Cf. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 703, who concede that actual dogs could have appeared on the Roman stage, though Fortey and Glucker “used a tape recording for the barking” in their modern production.
12. See also Davis (1993) 28–29.
13. Cf. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 703, who have the Nurse use a different entrance. They also have the Chorus enter individually as the episode progresses.
14. See also Davis (1993) 29–30.
15. Much like the similar character in Seneca's Medea.
16. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 704 have the Nurse act out what she describes, but this seems unnecessarily campy and naturalistic.
17. Balsley (2006) discusses the significance of changing one's hairstyle in Senecan tragedy.
18. Cf. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 706, who place Phaedra on the stage floor for the preceding scene, and so would have her exit via the wing leading to the forest.
19. Davis (1993) 29–30 agrees, pointing out that Hippolytus says nobody is present for his exchange with Phaedra (en locus ab omni liber arbitrio vacat, 601), and the Chorus seems ignorant of the truth during its next song. See also Boyle (1987) 67.
20. Cf. Kragelund (1999) 239–43.
21. Sutton (1986) 51 sees a potential difficulty in lines 600–601. Phaedra asks to speak to Hippolytus alone (si quis est abeat comes, 600), to which he replies that nobody is present (en locus ab omni liber arbitrio vacat, 601). The key word in Phaedra's request, however, is comes. She wants none of Hippolytus' companions to hear what she has to say, but has no trouble with her own confidant. Further, Hippolytus notes a lack of arbitrium, i.e., “judgment” (but see Coffey and Mayer [1990] ad 601, who render the word as “observation”). The time for the Nurse to pass judgment on Phaedra's desires is long past.
22. See Coffey and Mayer (1990) and Boyle (1987), both ad 623.
23. Cf. Phoenissae 106 and Thyestes 1043–45, where both Oedipus and Thyestes reque
st swords in order to kill themselves, but are denied.
24. Cf. the imaginary citizens to whom Oedipus calls in act 4 of the Oedipus, so that they might hurl stones at him (870–72).
25. A direct object for perferte must be supplied. I join Sutton (1986) 12–13 and others in favoring something like nuntium, i.e., news of Hippolytus' crime. In this case, in urbem means not so much “into the city,” as “throughout the city.” Cf. Kragelund (1999) 241–42, who supplies eam, i.e., Phaedra herself, and uses this as part of his argument for a change of setting to the forest outside of Athens. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 706 follow a similar line of thought, as does Smith (2011) 128.
26. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 710 have a chorus member “peep” through the center doors.
27. Davis (1993) 30 concurs that the Chorus remains for the rest of the play.
28. Compare with Theseus' similar reaction to daylight at HF 651–53.
29. On Theseus' relative old age, see Kohn (2008) 389–90.
30. Cf. Sutton (1986) 50–51, who thinks they entered with Theseus. But surely they would not have been in the Underworld with him, and it seems that he has only just arrived in the upper world, not having time to go into the palace.
31. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 710 have the Nurse exit at 862 so that the actor has plenty of time to change into the Messenger. But it is common Senecan practice to have the third actor silently observe dialogue between the other two. Theseus' monologue and the ensuing choral song provide ample time to make the change. Further, why would Theseus threaten the Nurse with a beating at line 884 if she were not present?
32. Coffey and Mayer (1990) ad 902 agree, while Fortey and Glucker (1975) 710 had the Nurse exit earlier and Phaedra remain throughout the song and the ensuing episode.
33. Fortey and Glucker (1975) 711–12 note that the audience might have expected Hippolytus to enter here, and that this is one of many instances in this play when Seneca disappoints expectations of which character appears. On the other hand, actor A is already onstage playing Theseus, and the audience would not expect a different actor to portray Hippolytus.
34. At line 1004, the Messenger creates the expectation of oratio recta (effatus, 1004), only to disappoint; at 1066–7, however, the exact words of Hippolytus are quoted. See further Kohn (2007) 65–66.
35. Sutton (1986) 17, 52 thinks Phaedra is once again on the balcony. In her previous appearances on the balcony, however, Phaedra did not address or otherwise acknowledge those on the stage below her. This time, she is definitely interacting with Theseus, and so should be on the same level.
36. Cf. Jocasta in the Oedipus, who before her suicide demands from Oedipus the same sword he used to slay Laius: hoc iacet ferro meus coniunx, Oedipus 1034–35.
37. Coffey and Mayer (1990) ad 1158 voice some discomfort with supra corpus, since “the phrase suggests the presence of Hippolytus' corpse,” which Theseus will not order to be brought on until 1247–48. But this is only a problem since they take invisum to mean “hated,” as do Fitch (2002) and Boyle (1987) ad loc. Instead if we take it as “unseen,” then Theseus here is wondering why Phaedra seems to be lamenting over a corpse that is not, in fact, present. Consider in this context HF 664 and 988, where invisus seems to literally mean “hated,” and yet refers to entities (in the first example, Dis, in the second, Lycus) who are not physically present, and so clearly are “invisible”; cf. Fitch (1987b) ad 664. This interpretation would fit with the Chorus' label of Phaedra as vecors, especially when we recall that hallucination is an obvious sign of Hercules' madness in the HF.
38. See Boyle (1987) ad 1199ff.; Coffey and Mayer (1990) and Zwierlein (1986) agree.
39. For example, Amphitryo advises Hercules to stay alive at HF 1302–13.
40. See above, lines 404–5.
41. For possible parallels from Greek tragedy, see Euripides, Troades 1118–22, where the corpse of Astyanax is brought on by Talthybius, and Bacchae 1168ff, where Agave brandishes the head of Pentheus on her thyrsus.
42. See Mills (1997) 186ff. on the relative dating of the two plays by Euripides, as well as that of Sophocles. See also the detailed discussion of Barrett (1964) 10–45, which includes fragments from plays by both Euripides and Sophocles.
43. For discussion of the motif in both Euripides and Seneca, see Kohn (2008) 379–92.
44. Coffey and Mayer (1990) 6.
45. Kakridis (1928) for one.
46. See Kohn (2008) 385–86.
47. This is quite probably the same balcony that Medea ascends to in the Medea. Although these two plays belong to different groups according to Fitch's (1981) relative dating, the common use of this device suggests that the Phaedra is the final play of the Early Group, and Medea the first of the Middle.
48. A similar effect occurs in the HF.
Chapter 5
1. The Nurse does not actually speak in act 1, but there are other indications that she is onstage.
2. Sutton (1986) 36 agrees, thinking women are more appropriate for the Chorus than men.
3. Davis (1993) 49–51 takes this side; Hine (2000) 122, on the other hand, ultimately dismisses the possibility.
4. This stand is supported by Sutton (1986) 37–41.
5. Sutton (1986) 11–12, 68–70. This is a rare occasion where he agrees with Zwierlein (1966) 40ff.
6. Sear (2006) does not report any such structure. But there may be written evidence. Plautus at Amphitro 1008 has Mercury say ascendam in tectum (“I will climb onto the roof”). A few lines later, he appears, apparently above Amphitruo (see Christenson [2000] ad 1009–20). Also Vitruvius says of the comic style of scenery, maenianorum habent speciam profectusque fenestris dispositos ([Comic scenery] “has the appearance of balconies and projections adorned with windows”). Seneca again uses such machinery in act 2 of the Phaedra, where Phaedra apparently appears in an upper window of her house, and possibly in act 2 of the Phoenissae as Jocasta observes the battlefield with her daughter and an attendant. Mastronarde (1990) 247–94 discusses the use of the skene roof in Attic drama. And see Sifakis (1967) 131–32 on ladders or steps connecting the orchestra and the stage.
7. Sear (2006) 89–90 catalogs a number of theaters in various places that had staircases in the proscaenium wall.
8. There is also the possibility, which I think unlikely, that Medea uses the balcony in act 3. See also Mastronarde (1990) 259–60, who lists five possibilities for access to the roof in Attic drama.
9. Sutton (1986) 49.
10. Sutton (1986) 49.
11. Davis (1993) 27 also has the Chorus absent for act 1.
12. For example, Catullus 62 and 64.323–81.
13. Davis (1993) 27 would not have the Chorus onstage for act 2.
14. His first word, Medea (179), is the nominative subject of exportat, and not the vocative.
15. Cf. Sutton (1986) 49, who thinks Medea exits here. But if so, the Nurse's question at 380 would make little sense.
16. Davis (1993) 27–28 has the Chorus absent for act 3.
17. Sutton (1986) 17. If he is right, this could be an argument for an onstage ladder/staircase. Such machinery would not be distracting if used throughout the drama.
18. OLD s.v. “tectum, -i, n,” 2.
19. Sutton (1986) 49.
20. The tectis again means Medea's house (see Hine [2000] ad 578 and Costa [1973] ad 577–78) and refers to the fires of the altar. But there may also be some foreshadowing, since the palace will soon be engulfed in flames.
21. Davis (1993) 28 does not think the Chorus remains onstage for act 4.
22. On the likelihood of this being a messenger speech, and not a description of what an onstage Medea is doing, see Hine (2000) 175 and Rosenmeyer (1993) 239–40. As he so often does, Seneca makes this messenger speech more vivid and exciting by including direct quotation; see further Kohn (2007).
23. Seneca also uses this meter at Phaedra 1201–12, when Theseus describes the horrors of the Underworld, and at Oedipus 223–32, as Creon tells of the even
ts that immediately preceded the revelation of Apollo's oracle. It seems, then, that Seneca liked to use trochees for horrific descriptions. He did not, however, always use them for such narrations, as, for example, Theseus' description of the Underworld in HF, or the Messenger's description of Atreus' palace in the Thyestes.
This is the only occurrence of the compound comprecor in the tragedies—it is also used once in the corpus of Seneca philosophus: epistle 99.16.10—as opposed to the precor usually employed by Seneca. This may indicate that this is a different kind of praying, i.e., singing instead of speaking.
24. This system was previously used by Horace in epodes 1–10; see Rosenmeyer, Ostwald, and Halporn (1963) 94. Hine (2000) ad 771–86 points out that epode 5 is about witchcraft, and implies therefore that this metrical system is somehow appropriate to Medea's spell. Hine (2000) ad 740–848 further states that in the theater of the Roman Republic iambic trimeters were spoken, and the other meters, including iambic dimeter, would have been chanted or sung, adding to the likelihood that this combination of trimeters and dimeters would likewise be sung; see also Marshall (2006) 230–44.
25. On the division of these lines into combinations of dimeters and monometers, see Fitch (1987a).
26. Hine (2000) ad 752–70 states that in the following lines Medea talks about things that she has done for Hecate in the past. He is correct in making the association with the usual formula for invoking the aid of a god by enumerating the services one has done for that god in the past. But Medea implies that loose hair and bare feet are necessary accompaniments to magic. And so it is sensible to think that she has let down her hair prior to her entrance. See Balsley (2006) on the significance of changing one's hairstyle in Senecan tragedy.
27. Recall that the Nurse also compared Medea to a bacchant at lines 382–86.
28. Sutton (1986) 34 posits that this command to call the children is given either to the Nurse or else to an otherwise unmentioned tutor. I prefer the former, doing away with the necessity of bringing on an entirely new character, who is not introduced, does not speak, and serves no other dramatic purpose.
