by Ross King
12 For elections during the Second Empire, see Alain Plessis, The Rise and Fallof the Second Empire, 1852—1871, trans. Jonathan Mandelbaum (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 23; and Théodore Zeldin, The Political System of Napoléon III (London: Macmillan, 1958), p. 87.
13 The Civil War in France, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works, 37 vols., ed. Eric Hobsbawm et al. (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975-1998), vol. 22, p. 316.
14 Le Moniteur universel, August 2, 1863.
15 Salons (1857—1879), 2 vols. (Paris, 1892), vol. 2, p. 135.
16 A full discussion of these reforms and the motives behind them can be found in Albert Boime, "The Teaching Reforms of 1863 and the Origins of Modernism in France," The Art Quarterly, vol. 1, new series (1977), pp. 1-39. He argues that Nieuwerkerke was acting in part out of his personal animosity toward the members of the Académie, with whom he had been quarreling throughout 1863 over the conservation of the Old Master paintings in the Louvre (see ibid., p. 27, note 16).
17 For Meissonier's regret at never gaining a post at the École des Beaux-Arts, see Gréard, Meissonier, p. 55.
18 Quoted in Timothy Wilson-Smith, Delacroix: A Life (London: Constable, 1992), p. 220. Wilson-Smith does not identify the offending member of the Institut.
Chapter Eleven: Young France
1 Quoted in Raymond Escholier, Delacroix: Peintre, Graveur, Écrivain, 3 vols. (Paris: H. Floury, 1929), vol. 3, p. 266. For Delacroix's funeral, see also René Huyghe, Delacroix, trans. Jonathan Griffin (London: Thames & Hudson, 1963), pp. 7-8.
2 For the "Generation of 1830," see M. C. Sandhu, "Le Roiantisme: Problème de Generation," Nineteenth-Century French Studies, vol. 8 (Spring—Summer 1980), pp. 206—17. Sandhu argues that the "Generation of 1830" was the first to have perceived itself as a generation, to have organized itself in a revolt against the existing society—i.e., the older generation—and, in doing so, to have developed a kind of counterculture. The Generation of 1830 is also discussed at length in Arnold Hauser, The Social History of Art, 2 vols., trans. Stanley Godman (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951), vol. 2, pp. 714-68.
3 Quoted in Huyghe, Delacroix, p. 8.
4 Gréard, Meissonier, p. 9.
5 For Meissonier's intoxication with Alfred de Vigny et al., see ibid., p. 8. Les Jeunes-France is the title of Gautier's collection of stories published in 1833.
6 On this transaction, see Brombert, Édouard Manet, p. 120.
7 A Tramp Abroad (Cologne: Konemann, 2000), p. 406.
8 La Lumière, November 29, 1856.
9 On these matters, see Elizabeth Anne McCauley's superb study, Industrial Madness: Commercial Photography in Paris, 1848—1871 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
10 On Nadar, see McCauley, Industrial Madness, pp. 105-48, as well as Nadar's autobiography, Quand j'etais photographe, ed. Jean-François Bory (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1994).
11 Quoted in Alan Krell, "The Fantasy of Olympia" Connoisseur 195 (August 1977), p. 298.
12 Quoted in Tabarant, Manet et ses oeuvres, p. 79.
13 For Manet's progress in painting Olympia, see Juliet Wilson-Bareau, The Hidden Face of Manet, pp. 44—5.
14 Krell, Manet and the Painters of Contemporary Life, p. 59.
15 For the literary allusions in the name Olympia, see Théodore Reff, Manet: "Olympia" (London: Allen Lane, 1976), pp. m—12.
16 Work remains to be done in this area, but for discussions of the possible influences of photography on Manet's work, see ibid., pp. 79 ff.; and Aaron Scharf, Art and Photography (London: Allen Lane, 1968), pp. 42—9.
17 For a discussion of the Japanese influence in Manet's work, see Klaus Berger, Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse, trans. David Britt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 20-33.
18 The Illustrated London News, October 10, 1863.
19 For this stipulation, see Brombert, Édouard Manet, p. 135.
20 Quoted in ibid., p. 136.
21 For Jules Vibert, see E. Bénézit, ed., Dictionnaire critique et documentaire des Peintres, Sculpteurs, Dessinateurs et Graveurs, 14 vols. (Paris: Grund, 1999), vol. 14.
22 Vollard, Recollections of a Picture Dealer, p. 154.
23 Correspondance de Baudelaire, 2 vols., ed. Claude Pichois (Paris: Gallimard, 1973), vol. 2, p. 323.
Chapter Twelve: Deliberations
1 For the "subtle conspiracy" whereby Louis-Napoléon fashioned a visual style sympathetic to his regime through the inducement of such purchases, many of them made by the Due de Morny, see Albert Boime, "The Second Empire's Official Realism," in Gabriel P. Weisberg, ed., The European Realist Tradition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), pp. 31-123.
2 Quoted in Gréard, Meissonier, p. 88.
3 For contemporary reviews of Meissonier's Remembrance of Civil War, see Hungerford, Ernest Meissonier, pp. 52—63.
4 For the argument that Morny deliberately co-opted Meissonier, I am indebted to the discussion in Boime, "The Second Empire's Official Realism," pp. 102—4. Boime argues that the Meissonier of Remembrance of Civil War "was a potential threat to the Second Empire ideology and had to be brought into the fold" (p. 103).
5 For this work, see Gréard, Meissonier, p. 378.
6 Quoted in Tabarant, Manet et ses oeuvres, p. 82. On this matter, see the discussion in Boime, "The Salon des Refusés and the Evolution of Modern Art," p. 416. Boime argues that the administration manipulated the adjudication process and the Salon des Refusés of 1864 "so as to forestall critical comment from press and public" (p. 416).
7 Gréard, Meissonier, p. 291.
8 Ibid., p. 100. Valery Gréard was elected to the Institut de France in 1875.
9 Journal, vol. 1, p. 138.
10 For an English translation of the poems, see Le Spleen de Paris: City Blues, trans. F. W. J. Hemmings (Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire: Brewhouse Private Press, 1977).
11 Correspondance de Baudelaire, vol. 2, p. 350.
12 Quoted in F. W. J. Hemmings, Baudelaire the Damned: A Biography (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1982), p. 18.
Chapter Thirteen: Room M
1 The Illustrated London News, May 7, 1864.
2 For the Emperor's children by Marguerite and Valentine, and the controversies surrounding their paternity, see Joanna Richardson, The Courtesans, pp. 81—3. Valentine's son, born in 1865, was Jules Hadot.
3 Quoted in Roger L. Williams, The Mortal Napoléon III(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 54.
4 The Illustrated London News, June 27, 1863.
5 Malmesbury, Memoirs of an Ex-Minister, vol. 2, p. 321.
6 See the excellent discussion of Eugénie, bullfighting and animal welfare issues found in Ridley, Napoléon III and Eugénie, pp. 410-11.
7 Moniteur universel, June 4, 1864.
8 Quoted in Jean Paladilhe and José Pierre, Gustave Moreau, trans. Bettina Wadia (London: Thames & Hudson, 1972), p. 25.
9 Quoted in Hungerford, Ernest Meissonier, p. 121.
10 Quoted in ibid., p. 135.
11 Le Figaro, June 2, 1864; Le Nain Jaune, May 11, 1864.
12 Journal des Debats, August 15, 1864; Les Beaux Arts, July 15, 1864; L 'Union, June 13, 1864.
13 La Presse, June 2, 1864.
14 Westminster Review, July 1864.
15 Le Salon de 1864 (Paris, 1864), p. 74.
16 Ibid.
17 Le Journal amusant, May 21, 1864.
18 Le Monde illustre, June 18, 1864.
19 L 'Artiste, June 1, 1864; Petit-Journal, June 3, 1864.
20 Le Charivari, June 15, 1864.
21 Le Moniteur universel, June 25, 1864.
22 Gazette des Étrangers, June 7, 1864.
23 La Vie Parisienne, May 1, 1864.
24 Ibid.
25 Ernest Renan, The Life of Jesus, trans A. D. Howell Smith (London: Watts & Co., 1935), p. 215.
26 Recent critics have certainly read the painting in this way: see the discussion in Brombert, Édouard Manet, pp. 151-2.
"Manet," she writes, "made graphic his acceptance of Renan's explanation: Mary Magdalen was hallucinating" (p. 152).
27 Le Moniteur universel, June 25, 1864.
28 Correspondance de Baudelaire, vol. 2, p. 408.
Chapter Fourteen: Plein Air
1 The Illustrated London News, July 11, 1863. For Manet's sojourn in Boulogne in 1864, see Wilson-Bareau and Degener, "Manet and the Sea," in Manet and the Sea (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 61—7.
2 For an excellent overview of the history of seaside vacations in nineteenth-century France, see Herbert, Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society, pp. 265—302.
3 Quoted in ibid., p. 265.
4 The Times, June 7, 1864.
5 For a good discussion of the history of this painting, see Théodore Reff, Manet and Modern Paris: One Hundred Paintings, Drawings, Prints and Photographs by Manet and His Contemporaries (Washington: National Gallery of Art, 1982), pp. 129—31.
6 Gazette des Beaux-Arts, May 1862. Gautier wrote these words after a private viewing of the painting.
7 Manet by Himself', p. 31.
8 Quoted in Juliet Wilson-Bareau and David Degener, Manet and the American Civil War (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003), p. 54.
9 Quoted in ibid.
10 On Burty, see Gabriel P. Weisberg, The Independent Critic: Philippe Burty and the Visual Arts of Mid-Nineteenth-Century France (New York: P. Lang, 1993).
11 Manet by Himself, p. 31.
12 Gréard, Meissonier, p. 185.
13 For details of Meissonier's sketches and his working method on Friedland, see Hungerford, Ernest Meissonier, pp. 168—70.
14 Gotlieb, The Plight of Emulation, p. 155.
15 Quoted in Pasquier-Guignard, "L'Installation a Poissy," p. 68.
16 Quoted in ibid., p. 66. For Meissonier's spending habits, see Gréard, Meissonier, p. 116.
17 Gréard asserts that Meissonier spent more than a million francs on his property in Poissy {Meissonier, p. 115).
18 See Pasquier-Guignard, "L'Installation a Poissy," p. 66.
19 On these matters, see ibid.
20 This anecdote is told by Edmond de Goncourt in Journal, vol. 1, p. 138.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 Gréard, Meissonier, p. 125.
24 Ibid., p. 126.
25 For a discussion of Meissonier's paintings of artists in their studios, see Gotlieb, The Plight of Emulation, pp. 188-95.
26 See "Extraits de l'agenda de Charles Meissonier," in Ernest Meissonier: Retrospective, P. 73.
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
Chapter Fifteen: A Beastly Slop
1 Quoted in William Gaunt, The Pre-Raphaelite Tragedy (London: Cardinal, 1975), p. 29.
2 Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, ed. Oswald Doughty and John Robert Wahl, 5 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965-7), vol. 2, p. 527.
3 Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Jane Morris: Their Correspondence, ed. John Bryson and Janet Camp Troxell (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), p. 174. This particular comment dates from 1881, but there is no doubt that it represents Rossetti's opinion in 1864.
4 Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, vol. 2, p. 530.
5 Quoted in Tabarant, Manet et ses oeuvres, p. 100.
6 Wilson-Bareau, ed., Manet by Himself, p. 32. The price paid by Chesneau is not recorded.
7 Ibid.
8 See Brombert, Édouard Manet, p. 167. See also the ingenious argument made by Théodore Reff that, in sending these two particular paintings to the Salon, Manet was imitating the example of Titian, who had once presented Emperor Charles V with a Venus and a derided Christ: "The Meaning of Olympia," Gazette des Beaux-Arts 63 (1964), p. 116.
9 See Louis Leroy's comments in Le Charivari, May 5, 1865.
10 Wilson-Bareau, ed., Manet by Himself, p. 32.
11 Ibid., p. 33.
12 Le Temps, November 27, 1900.
13 Quoted in Rewald, The History of Impressionism, p. 50.
14 Gazette des Beaux-Arts, July 1865.
15 This anecdote is repeated in Rewald, The History of Impressionism, p. 123.
Chapter Sixteen: The Apostle of Ugliness
1 Wilson-Bareau, ed., Manet by Himself, p. 33.
2 Correspondance de Baudelaire, vol. 2, pp. 553, 437.
3 Ibid., p. 500.
4 Ibid., p. 496.
5 Louis Auvray, Exposition des beaux-arts: Salon de 1865 (Paris, 1865), p. 59.
6 Le Moniteur des arts, May 5, 1865; Ze Monde illustré, May 13, 1865; L'Époque, May 17, 1865.
7 Jules Clarétie, Le Figaro, June 20, 1865.
8 Le Moniteur universel, June 24, 1865; La Presse, May 28, 1865; Le Grand Journal, May 21, 1865; L'Illustration, June 3, 1865; Le Siècle, June 2, 1865; La Gazette de France, June 30, 1865. For an excellent overview of the critical responses to Olympia, see the discussion in Clark, The Painting of Modern Life, pp. 83—98. I am indebted to Clark for his gleaning of so many reviews as well as for his discussion of the place of both nudes and prostitutes in French art and society (see especially pp. 100—46).
9 La Presse, May 28, 1865.
10 L'Époque, May 17, 1865; Le Grand Journal, May 21, 1865; Le Siècle, June 2, 1865; Félix Jahyer, Étude sur les beaux-arts: Salon de 1865 (Paris, 1865), p. 23.
11 Quoted in Clark, The Painting of Modern Life, p. 96.
12 Le Journal Littiraire de la Semaine, May 29—June 4 1865.
13 Le Grand Journal, May 21, 1865; and A.-J. Lorentz, quoted in Clark, The Painting of Modern Life, p. 289, note 69.
14 Quoted in McCauley, Industrial Madness, p. 155.1 am indebted to this work for its account of the "flesh trade" on pp. 153—85.
15 Quoted in ibid., p. 158.
16 Jacques-Émile Blanche, Manet (Paris: F. Rieder & Cie, 1924), pp. 36—7.
17 Quoted in Courthion and Cailler, eds., Portrait of Manet, trans. Michael Ross, p. 55.
18 Quoted in ibid., p. 51.
19 L'Artiste, April 1, 1865.
20 For a good discussion of Meissonier's manipulation of interior light in The Etcher, see Hungerford, Ernest Meissonier, p. 88.
21 The Astronomer is now in the Louvre, The Geographer in the Städel Museum in Frankfurt. How and where Meissonier may have seen The Astronomer—if indeed he was familiar with the work—is something of a mystery. According to Dr. Ivan Gaskell, a Vermeer scholar at Harvard University, the painting appears to have been in England by 1804, and by 1857 it may have been owned by Henry Tate. No reliable information indicates when it returned to France. Thoré claimed in his 1866 article in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts that the painting was offered by Christie's in London in 1863, but the details of this sale have not been traced. It is known, however, that The Astronomer was not among the eleven paintings in the 1866 exhibition of Vermeer's work in Paris. Meissonier may well have been familiar with the work through an 1784 engraving by Louis Garreau. This reproduction was included by Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Le Brun (the dealer who owned the painting and commissioned the engraving) in his three-volume illustrated publication, Galérie des peintres flamands, hollandais et allemands (Paris, 1792—96), vol. 2, p. 49. On Le Brun, see Ivan Gaskell, "Tradesmen as Scholars: Interdependencies in the Study and Exchange of Art," Art History and Its Institutions: Foundations of a Discipline, ed. Elizabeth Mansfield (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 146—162. For the 1866 Vermeer exhibition in Paris, see Gaskell's Vermeer's Wager (London: Reaktion, 2000), p. 123. I am grateful to Dr. Gaskell for supplying this information.
22 Quoted in Hungerford, Ernest Meissonier, p. 35.
23 Zeldin, Taste and Corruption, p. 112.
24 La Presse, June 2, 1965.
25 Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, Pages from the Goncourt Journal, p. 172.
26 Ibid.
27 See John Ingamells, The Wallace Collection Catalogue of Pictures, vol. 2, French Nineteenth Century (London: The Wallace Collection, 1986), p. 14.
28 For the prices paid for works at the Morny auction, see Hungerford, Ernest M
eissonier, pp. 106-8; and Ingamells, op. cit., pp. 163, 168 and 172.
Chapter Seventeen: Maître Velázquez
1 Wilson-Bareau, ed., Manet by Himself, p. 34.
2 Ibid.
3 Quoted in Wilson-Bareau, "Manet and Spain," in Tinterow et al., eds., Manet/Velázquez, p. 230.
4 Quoted in ibid., p. 231.
5 Wilson-Bareau, ed., Manet by Himself, pp. 34 and 36.
6 Quoted in Tinterow, "Raphael Replaced," in Manet/Velázquez, p. 56.
