Wong Hin Soon. 1980. “Field Problems in Post-Production Handling of Padi.” Working Paper No. 19. Persidangan Padi Kebangsaan Malaysia (Malaysian national conference on paddy), Kuala Lumpur, February 26–28.
Yamashita, Masanabu, Wong Hin Soon, and S. Jegatheesan. 1980. “MADA-TARC Cooperative Study, Pilot Project ACRBD 4, Muda Irrigation Scheme, Farm Management Studies.” Mimeo.
Young, Kevin, William C. F. Bussink, and Parvez Hassan. 1980. Malaysia’s Growth and Equity in a Multiracial Society. A World Bank Country Economic Report. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
Zakariah Ismail. 1980. “Economic and Social Aspects of Padi Production: Some Recent Trends.” Paper presented at Seminar on Economics, Development and the Consumer, Consumers’ Association of Penang. Penang.
Zola, Emile. 1980. The Earth. Trans. Douglas Parmee. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Index
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Abdul Majid, 5, 159, 218, 221, 226, 233
Abdul Rahim, 93, 198, 261n
Abdul Rahman, 22, 93, 122, 141n, 161n, 164, 171, 173, 175, 207, 234, 244, 260, 281
Abercrombie, Nicholas, 247n, 319n, 320
Abu Hassan, 21, 94, 127, 135n, 144, 155, 195, 227, 267, 360
Abu Saman, 206–08
Accumulation, 181–82, 234–35; of capital, 181, 184; of land, 14–17, 96–97, 149
Accusation: language of, 186–89; logic of, 160–62, 168–69, 181–83
Afifuddin Haji Omar, 72n, 74n
Agricultural labor, 51n, 113 and n, 306; gender-based division of, 117n, 119. See also Wage labor, paddy
Agriculture, 51; capitalist, 27, 42, 44, 71, 80, 110, 167 and n, 181–83, 184, 234–35, 241, 349; commercialization of, 71, 74, 85, 106, 107, 123–24, 181–82, 189; plantation sector, 32, 51, 55, 124, 313. See also Double-cropping; Green Revolution; Rice cultivation
Ahmad, Tok, 93, 165, 194–95, 208–09, 210
Akil, 217–18
Ali Abdul Rahman, 93, 132n
Alier, Juan Martinez, 262n, 322n, 325n, 347
Ali Husin, 190
Alor Setar, 52, 62, 80, 170n, 275
Althusser, Louis, 42, 43, 247n, 315, 317, 319
Amin, 4, 5, 7, 94, 97, 114, 153–54 and n, 162, 228, 254, 263, 267; in village politics, 127, 128, 216–17, 221, 226, 232, 360
Andalusia, rural labor of, 239, 322n, 325n, 326n, 347
Anderson, Perry, 278n, 315n
Ani, Haji, 13, 16, 20, 165
Ariffin, 5, 89, 93, 132n, 250
Arrests, political, 246, 274, 276
Arrogance, charge of, 187, 199; against the poor, 197–98, 301; against the rich, 195–97, 239
Arson, 29, 248, 249; absent in Sedaka, 273
Asian Development Bank, 50
Ayub, Haji (Haji Broom), 13–19, 21, 22–26, 188, 200n, 311
Azaudin, Haji, 212
Bakar “halus,” 200
Bakri bin Haji Wahab, 92, 123, 132n, 161n, 171, 222, 229, 230n, 255, 281
Barnard, Rosemary, 72n, 74n, 253
Basir, 2, 4, 7, 11–12, 19, 89, 90, 94, 128, 131, 136, 159, 161n, 226, 234, 274, 277 and n, 278–79; in village politics, 127, 128, 131, 136, 169, 214–18, 221, 222–23, 227–33, 276–77, 360
Behavior, 38, 46; onstage vs. backstage, 284–89. See also Compliance and conformity; Resistance
Bell, Clive, 79n
Bernstein, Richard J., 45n
Blacks, American, 33–34, 279n, 329, 338
Blame, assignment of, in Sedaka: to local neighbors, 160–62, 168–69, 182; to Malays, not Chinese, 168–69, 181–83
Bloch, Marc, 332
Blum, Jerome, 294n
Bourdieu, Pierre, 283, 307 and n, 310, 323n, 345
Boycotts, 290, 291; farm labor, 250–55
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Brecht, Bertolt, 346
Broadcasting (dry sowing), 121–22, and n, 123 and n, 259, 260 and n, 242, 250n
Buddhism, 331, 333
Bukit Raya (district), 253, 276
Burma, 44, 333
Capitalism, 50, 51, 234–35, 307 and n, 311, 316, 318; agrarian, 27, 42, 44, 71, 80, 110, 167 and n, 181–83, 184, 241, 349; early vs. mature, 182n, 320–21, 346; ideological disaffection of labor, 339; resistance against, 235, 302, 347–48; revolutionary character of, 346–47
Carlyle, Thomas, 347
Census: decennial, 275; house-by-house, for government aid, 130, 131, 143, 221, 226–27
Ceti, 21
Character assassination. See Slander and character assassination
Charity, 9–11, 135, 169–78, 185, 189–91; decline of, and increase in theft, 269, 271 and n, 291; as social lever, 11, 171–72, 175, 185, 194–95, 197; as tie between classes, 136–37, 144, 156, 306, 308–09; types of, 169–74. See also Zakat
Chettiar moneylenders, 21, 44
Chinese, the, 58 and n, 62–63, 86, 186n; as combine, tractor, truck owners, 109, 160, 162, 167, 169, 181–82, 214, 218–19, 249; as land tenants, 109–10, 167–69, 181–82; Malay relations with, 168–69, 181–82, 258; as moneylenders, 16, 151
Christianity, 287n, 331
Civil War (U.S.), 30–31
Class consciousness, 38, 43, 288, 297, 340–45. See also False-consciousness
Class experience, 41–47, 319n
Class relations, 43, 140–41, 180–83, 290; analysis of, 42–47; balance of power, rich vs. poor, 22–27, 193–94, 212, 286 and n, 287–89, 305; blame assignment, intravillage intraethnic, 160–62, 168–69, 181–83; breakdown of social authority, 311–12 and n; conceptual equality, 192–95, 196, 218, 220; flow of money from poor to rich, 162, 194–95; interdependence severed, 76–77, 124, 136–37, 150–51, 180, 184, 243, 284, 305, 311, 312; landlord-tenant, in Sedaka, 104–05, 136–37, 153–54, 189, 193–94, 205–12, 306; moral context of, 184–85, 199; politics and, 134–35, 180, 220–33, 278–81, 314; rich-poor, 190–98, 305–14; rich-poor, in Sedaka, 24, 124, 129, 134–37, 141–82, 199–212, 241, 244, 282, 284, 288–89, 305, 336, 338, 345–48; rich-poor, widening of gulf, 57, 80, 84, 124, 182; and ritual ties, 169, 172, 180, 237–40, 308; role of charity in, 136–37, 144, 156, 169–78, 189–91, 194–95, 306, 308; shared values and norms, 184–98, 204, 207–12, 282–84, 305–10, 313, 337–38; symbols of, 44–45, 309; turned “topsy-turvy,” 162, 167–68, 178–83, 194–95
Class structure, Sedaka, 91, 95–100, 199–204; complexity of, 244
Class struggle, 42, 147–48, 243, 290, 296–97; common cause of, 338; objective vs. personal/social view of, 181–82 and n. See also Ideological conflict; Resistance Cloward, Richard A., 43, 323
Cobb, R. C., 30, 37n
Cobbett, William, 347
Coles, Robert, 279n
Collective resistance, 248–65, 292, 295, 297–99; obstacles to, 242–48, 273
Colonial Malaya, 31–32, 62–63, 298, 313
Combine-harvesters, 44, 72, 110; brokers, 161–62; effects in Sedaka, 8–9, 111–12, 114–21, 123, 125, 150, 154–64, 167–68; effects on pure [Page 377] wage labor, 116–18; justification by users of, 157–58, 161; peasant resistance to, 116, 160–64, 242–43, 246, 248–55; syndicates, 109, 110n, 160, 167 and n, 182, 249; views of rich vs. poor on, 154–64; wage labor displaced by, 9, 67, 74–76, 111–25, 150, 155–64
Commercialization, 57, 71, 74, 85, 106, 107, 123–24, 181–82, 189
Commodity fetishism, 39n, 307n
Compliance and conformity, 24–26, 246–47, 273, 277, 289, 302, 304; false, 25, 29, 34, 37, 279–80, 284–86, 288–89; false-consciousness and, 39–40, 287, 316; interpretations of, 38–40, 284–89, 320; legitimation of hegemony lacking in, 324–25; as pragmatic resignation, 324–27; pressure for, on poor, 276–80, 312; protest within, 26 and n, 289; routine, 278–84, 320. See also Deference
Concentration camps, 286, 287, 327–28
Conformity. See Compliance and conformity; Deference
Corruption and profiteering, 128–29, 143–44, 222–23, 225–29
Corvée labor, 62, 63, 298, 307
Counterappropriation, 34, 296, 301, 302–03
Credit, 4
8, 64, 68, 84n, 136; delinquency and default, 84, 128–29; fraud, 128; government and quasigovernment, 56, 82–84, 126–29; interest rates, 15n, 44, 128; jual janji (mortgage) system, 16–17, 19, 21, 68, 73, 149, 311; padi kunca (paddy) system, 15 and n
Cullam, Shelby, 296n
Cultural resistance, 34, 287n, 300–01
Cultural standing, 237–40
Cutting of paddy, 75n, 115, 117, 119
Daane, Jon R. V., 74n
Datuk Asri, 224n
Daud bin Haji Jafaar, 4, 89, 97, 127, 128, 131, 161n, 201, 216–17, 221, 360
Death benefit societies, 3, 132, 134, 136, 238
Deference, 24–25, 191, 197–98, 273; born of mortal fear, 286, 327–28; “false,” 25, 279–80, 285–86, 288–89, 327n
Defiance behavior, 26, 32, 33, 243
De Koninck, Rodolphe, 221n
Demonstrations and riots, 52, 53–54 and n, 254, 334; absence in Sedaka, 273; in Alor Setar (1980), 80, 275–76
Dependencies: rich-poor, 76, 180, 284–86, 305–06, 312; severed, 76–77, 124, 137, 150–51, 180, 184, 243, 284, 311, 312; on the state, of rich, 312–13
Derma gifts, 169, 172 and n Desertion, 30–31, 32, 291, 293–94, 301
Determinism, 317
Dignity, loss of, of poor, 236–40
Din, Haji, 165, 194–95, 208–09, 210
Dissimulation, 25, 29, 200–04, 281, 284–85, 287, 288
Double-cropping, 55, 186; effects of, 49, 66–68, 69, 75–85, 147; effects in Sedaka, 8, 42, 95–125, 137, 140, 148–51, 179–81, 238, 305; in Kedah, 65, 66–68, 148; views of poor vs. rich on, 148–51
Drought of 1978, 67, 111
Drought relief programs, 126, 129–30, 135
Dry sowing. See Broadcasting Dulang (village), 216, 217
Dullah, 11, 90, 92, 143, 149, 171, 174, 175, 186, 198, 228, 230n, 270–71
“Dull compulsion of economic relations,” 252, 277–78, 304, 317, 336
Dunn, John, 47
Durkheim, Emile, 247
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Dzulkifli bin Haji Wahab, 93, 161n, 222, 230n, 281
Economic system: and class relations, 42, 246, 252, 306–09, 336; “dull compulsion” of, 252, 277–78, 304, 317, 336. See also Production relations
Economy, Malaysian, 50–51, 57, 246n
Education, 50, 52n, 54, 57n, 65, 238
Elections: of 1969, 53; of 1978, 57, 58n, 132; system of, 49, 52–53, 314 and n
Elite, 38–40; class value imposition by, 40–41, 184–85, 287 and n, 304–05, 311–12 and n, 313–14, 315–17, 335, 336n, 341; political, Malaysia, 53; in political parties, 132, 135 and n; use of repression by, 246; village, 25–27, 129, 132, 137, 220, 283, 288–89. See also Rich, the
Emigration, as form of resistance, 34, 35, 245. See also Flight; Migration
Employment, 56, 67, 135; ties between classes, 136–37. See also Wage labor
Engels, Friedrich, 265n, 315, 321
England, 41, 347; peasant resistance, 35n, 249 and n, 265, 285; workingclass culture, 321, 322, 325n, 349
Equality, conceptual, 192–95, 196, 218, 220
Esman, Milton, 83n
Euphemization, 205 and n; of socioeconomic power, 306–09, 314
Evasion, 31, 35, 36, 301, 302, 329
Exchange labor, 113n, 115, 300
Exploitation, 39, 135, 180, 302, 307n; forms of, 328; to marginalization, 76–77, 243; rationalization of, 204–12; status, 240; vocabulary and examples of, 186–98
Exports, 50–51, 54, 314
Factionalism, 43, 140, 214–18, 224
Fadzil, 11, 19, 93, 97, 109, 141n, 159, 166, 214–19 and n, 223, 267–68, 271n; in village politics, 127, 128, 132, 221, 231–32, 360
False-consciousness, 39–40, 43, 49n, 139, 247n, 279, 287; institutional basis of, 315–17, 322; self-infliction, 322–24
Farmers’ Association, 82–83, 125–26, 275; class character of, 126–28, 129; corruption and profiteering, 128–30; membership in, 83, 126–28, 136; nepotism, 130; partisan character of, 126–28, 129–30, 136; in Sedaka area, 12, 86, 87, 126–30, 131, 136, 159, 217
Farm size: in Muda, 63, 64, 69, 70; in Sedaka, disparities, 91, 95, 98–99, 100–02 and n; structural favoring of large operators, 71–85, 99–100, 167n
Feasts: Malay, 87, 149, 162, 169, 172–78, 237–39; reversal of social status in, 287n, 331
Femia, Joseph, 316
Feminism, 33n
Fertilizer, 48, 55–56, 64, 66, 72, 82, 126, 128
Feudalism, 287n, 328, 330–31, 340
Field preparation, 74, 113–14
Firth, Raymond, 190
Fitrah (gifts), 10; peribadi, 171
Flight, as form of resistance, 34, 35, 245, 298, 302, 329. See also Migration
Flying letters (surat layang), 334, 362
Food, 66, 148–49; meat, 174n; poor vs. well-to-do, 6
Foot dragging, 29, 34, 35, 251, 255, 302
France, 30–31; class relations, 147, 199n, 265, 284–85, 299n, 324, 332
French Revolution, 344 and n Frontier society, 59, 62, 64, 266
Fujimoto, Akimo, 72n, 74n, 192, 213n
Funerals, 3, 7, 225n, 238
Furnishings, house, 6, 66
Gaafar, 217–18, 219
Gaventa, John, 277n, 325n
Geertz, Clifford, 45, 139
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Gelam Dua (village), 253
Genovese, Eugene, 292, 293, 329, 338
Germany, class relations, 34–35 and n, 239n, 342–43
Ghandi, Indira, 283n
Ghani Lebai Mat, 7, 94, 127, 128, 164, 166, 209, 267
Ghazali, 5, 18, 94, 126n, 144, 156, 207n, 223, 228–29, 360
Gibbons, D. S., 221n
Giddens, Anthony, 318n, 319n, 32 n, 338n
Gilmore, David, 239
Gleaning, 9n, 256–57 and n; elimination of, 9, 76, 118–19, 154; behind combine-harvesters, 119, 156
Goffman, Erving, 11n
Gossip, 282, 284, 290. See also Reputation, politics of; Slander and character assassination
Government policy, Malay, 54–57, 182, 275–77; Muda region, 65, 82–85, 313–14. See also Land policy; Rice policy
Government services and subsidies, 4, 12, 50, 52n, 220–21, 314; rural development, 54–56, 65, 131; in Sedaka, 131–32, 220–33
Gramsci, Antonio, 39, 315–17, 322, 331, 336–37 and n, 340–41, 346
Greed, 17, 22, 187–88. See also Stinginess Green paddy, selling of, 110n, 162n, 165n
Green revolution, 41–42, 56, 186; and farm commercialization, 71; in Muda, 64–68, 74–85, 180; in Sedaka, 86, 95–125, 140, 179–80. See also Double-cropping; Rice
Griffin, Keith, 80, 84
Gross national product, Malaysia, 50
Guar Cempedak (town), 131, 276
Gullick, John M., 62
Habermas, Jurgen, 247n, 286, 315
Haji, title and status, 18–22, 44–45, 107, 181
Haji Broom. See Ayub, Haji Hamid, 93, 141n, 160
Hamzah, 1–3, 7, 24, 89, 92, 113, 145–46, 150, 155, 160, 176–77, 178, 198, 222, 252, 263, 277n; and Haji Kadir, 21, 271–72, 279–81, 309; the zakat champ, 11, 171
Harun bin Haji Jaafar, 127
Harun Din, 93, 132n
Harvesting, 75, 117–18, 121 and n; hand, 117–18, 121 and n, 155–56, 253–54; mechanized, 114–16, 118–19, 155–57. See also Combine-harvesters
Hasnah, 92, 97
Hassan, Haji, 167
Hauling of paddy, 124n, 213 and n, 214–20
Health services, 50, 52n, 54, 57n, 65, 87
Hearn, Francis, 178n, 299n-300n
Hegel, G. W. E, 12n, 139n, 179, 289
Hegemony, ideological, 247n, 287 and n, 304–05, 311–12 and n, 313–14, 326; conflict within, 335–40; Gramsci’s analysis of, 315–17; inevitability of disputed, 322–24, 327–28, 330–31, 334, 347; legitimacy of questioned, 322–24 and n, 330, 334; not present in Sedaka, 318, 321–22, 336, 345; penetration of, by poor, 318–22, 346; questioning of concept, 317–18, 335. See also Ideology
Herring, Ronald, 312n
Hinduism, 40 and n, 287n, 327, 331
Hobsbawm, E. J., 36n, 273, 301, 344
Hoggart, Richard, 322, 323n
Horii, Kenzo, 90n-91n, 98, 101, 103 and n, 104n, 108, 113, 189
Housing, 66, 89; government grants for, 89, 132, 143, 221–23, 226–33
Humiliation of poor, 117n, 176, 194, 237–40; avoidance, 193, 197, 283
Hyden, Goran, 302
Identification with oppressor, 327–28
[Page 380]
Ideological conflict, 233–40, 297, 304–14, 335–46; caused by violation of promises, 338–40, 342–47; in Sedaka, 192–94, 234–39, 308–09, 336, 338, 340, 345–48; village gate issue, 212–20; in Village Improvement Scheme allocations, 220–33
Ideology: of class relations, 188–98, 199, 204, 304–14; demystification of, 40–41, 316, 317, 346; elite control and imposition of, 39–41, 184–85, 287 and n, 304–05, 311–12 and n, 313–17, 335, 336n, 341; millennial and utopian, 332–33, 334, 335n, 336; penetration and deviant interpretation by poor, 318–22, 346; shared values, 184–98, 204, 207–12, 282–84, 305–10, 313, 337–38; subordinate classes and, 38–41, 316, 317, 340–45, 346–47
Idleness, humiliation of, 117n, 239
Idris, 87, 94, 127, 267
Ignorance, feigned, 29, 33–34, 37
Income: average, growth of, 55–56, 77–79; average, recent retreat, 78–79; farm, in Muda, 63, 65, 77–81, 355; farm wage labor in Sedaka, 112–13, 116–24; Malay vs. Chinese, 53; maldistribution of, 51–52, 53, 56, 57; maldistribution in Muda, 77–80; maldistribution in Sedaka, 91, 95, 96, 124; poverty-level, 9, 51–52, 81, and n, 82, 91; understatement strategies, 199–203
India, 147, 283n; caste system in, 33, 39–40, 289n, 324, 327, 329, 330–31
Indonesia, 147, 332. See also Java Inevitability, concept of, 322–24, 327–28, 330–31, 334, 347
Inheritance, 211; land fragmentation by, 68n, 71, 99–100
Institutional access, 82–85, 297–99; in Sedaka, 126–30, 135–37, 142, 220–33
Insubordination, 31, 36, 294
Interest rates, 15n, 44; subsidized, 128
Intermediaries, use of, 207 and n, 250
Internal Security Act, 53, 274
Intimidation, 246, 274–75, 286
Invasion of land, 32, 302–03
Invisibles, 12 and n, 239
Irrigation, 50, 66; canceled season of 1978, 66–67, 111; timed by state, 48, 56, 82. See also Double-cropping; Muda Irrigation Project Ishak, 25, 93, 227, 229n, 255
Weapons of the Weak- Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance Page 60
